Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858) — archive.org text layer

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Attribution: Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858); public domain in Canada (death years verified: G. Rawlinson d.1902 (https://archive.org/metadata/historyofherodot02herouoft LC heading 1812-1902; https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1355998); co-authors H. C. Rawlinson d.1895 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309602), J. G. Wilkinson d.1875 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q923032) — staged at corpus/incoming/histories/historians/herodotus-histories-ii/historyofherodot02herouoft.pdf from https://archive.org/details/historyofherodot02herouoft (HIST-1, 2026-09-29)); OCR text by the Kemetic project, Yousef Hanna 2026.

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6	Toronto
7	Library
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9	ixii^.jAN 1 1925.
p. 4
p. 5
10	\|] LQr
11	•T.I'
12	THE
13	HISTORY
14	OF ^
15	HERODOTUS.
16	A NEW KNGLISH VERSION, EnTTED WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND APPENDICES,
17	ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS, FROM THE
18	MOST RECENT SOURCES OF INFORMATION; AND EMBODYING
19	THE CHIEF RESULTS, HISTORICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHICAL,
20	WHICH HAVE BEEN OBTAINED IN THE PROGRESS
21	OF CUNEIFORM AND HIEROGLYPHICAL
22	DISCOVERY.
23	BY
24	GEOEGE EAWLINSON, M.A.,
25	LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD.
26	ASSISTED BY
27	COL. SIR HENRY RAWLINSON, K.C.B., and SIR J. G. "WILKINSON, F.R.S.
28	IN FOUR VOLUMES.— Vol. II.
29	WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. ^ \| VP
30	^1
31	LONDON:
32	JOHN MUEEAY, ALBEMAELE STEEET.
33	1858.
p. 6
34	LONDON ; PRINTED BY WIIXJAM CLOWES AND SONS, SIAMFOKD STKEKT,
35	AND CHAKING CROSS.
p. 7
36	CONTENTS or VOL. 11.
37	THE HISTOEY OF HEEODOTUS.
38	THE SECOND BOOK, ENTITLED EUTERPfe.
39	Accession of Cambyses — he invades Egypt (ch. 1). Description of Egypt —
40	Antiquity (2). Seats of learning (3). Inventions, &c. (4). Description of the
41	country (5-13). Agriculture (1-4). Boundaries (15-18). The Nile — Causes
42	of the inundation (19-27). Sources (28). The Upper Nile (29-31). The
43	interior of Libya (32). Comparison of the Nile and Ister (33-4). Customs
44	of the Egyptians — their strangeness (35-36.) Religious customs (37-48). ^
45	Connexion of the religions of Egypt and Greece (49-57). Egyptian Festivals
46	(58-64). Sacred animals (65-67). The Crocodile (68-70). The Hippopotamus
47	(71). Otters, fish, &c. (72). The Phoenix (73). Sacred and winged ser-
48	pents (74-75). The Ibis (76). Daily life of the Egyptians (77-80). Dress
49	(81). Divination (82). Oracles (83). Practice of Medicine (84). Funerals
50	(85-90). Worship of Perseus (91). Customs of the marsh-men (92-5).
51	Egyptian boats (96). . Routes in the flood-time (97). Anthylla and
52	Archandropolis (98). History of Egypt — Men (99). His successors —
53	Nitocris — Mceris (100-1). Sesostris — his expeditions — his works in Egypt
54	(102-110). His son, Pheron (111). Proteus — story of Helen (112-120).
55	Rhampsinitus (122). Doctrine of metempsychosis (123). Cheops —his
56	pyramid (124-6). Chephren (127-8). Mycerinus (129-133). His pyramid —
57	history of Rhodopis (134-5). Asychis (136). Anysis — Sabaco (137-40).
58	Sethos — ■ invasion of Sennacherib (141). Number of the kings (142-3). Greek
59	and Egyptian notions of the age of the gods (144-6). The Dodecarchy
60	(147-152). Psammetichus (154-7). Neco, his son (158-9). Psammis, son of
61	Neco (160). Apries, son of Psammis — his deposition (161-9). Tomb of
62	Osiris (170). Egyptian mysteries (171). Reign of Amasis (172-7). His
63	favour to the Greeks (178-182)
64	Page 1
65	((
66	APPENDIX TO BOOK II.
67	CHAPTEE I.
68	THE EGYPTIANS BEFORE THE REIGN OF THEIR KING PSAMMETICHUS BELIEVED
69	THEMSELVES TO BE THE MOST ANCIENT OF MANKIND." — Chai:). 2. [G. W.]
70	The Egyptians from Asia. 2. Egyptian and Celtic. 3. Semitic character of
71	Egyptian. 4. Evidences of an older language than Zend and Sanscrit. 5.
72	Ba or Pa, and Ma, primitive cries of infants, made into father and mother.
73	6. m for b. 7. Bek not to be pronounced by an untutored child. 8. Bek,
74	name of bread in Egypt. 9. The story told to Herodotus. 10, Claim of the
75	Scythians to be an early race
76	279
77	a 2
p. 8
78	iv CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
79	CHAPTEE II.
80	" THE EGYPTIANS WERE THE FIRST TO DISCOVER THE SOLAR YEAR." — Chap. 4.
81	[G. W.]
82	1. The 12 mouths in Egypt. 2. Years of 360, 365, and SGoJ days. 3. The three
83	seasons. 4. Length of the year corrected. 5. Sothic year. 6. The year of
84	365 days. 7. The dates of kings' reigns. 8. The Square or Sothic year.
85	9. The Lunar year. 10. The Arab year. 11. The Jewish year. 12. Inter-
86	calation of the Egyptians and Greeks Page 283
87	CHAPTER III.
88	" THE EGYPTIANS FIRST BROUGHT INTO USE THE NAMES OF THE TWELVE GODS
89	WHICH THE GREEKS ADOPTED FROM THEM." — Chap. 4. [G. W.J
90	1. Different orders of Gods. 2. The gi-eat Gods of the first order. 3. The second
91	order. 4. Place of Re, or the Sun. 5. Classification of the, Gods. 6. Sa-
92	bjeism not a part of the Egyptian religion. 7. Pantheism. 8. Name of Re,
93	Phrah, and Pharaoh. 9. Position of Re in the second order. 10. Rank of
94	Osiris. 11 Children of Seb. 12. The third order. 13. The other most
95	noted deities. 14. Other Gods. 15. Foreign divinities. 16. Chief God of a
96	city and the triad. 17. Deities multiplied to a great extent — the unity.
97	18. Offices of the Deity — characters of Jupiter. 19. Resemblances of Gods
98	to be traced from one original. 20. Subdivision of the Deity — local Gods.
99	21. Personifications — Nature Gods. 22. Sacred trees and mountains. 23.
100	Common origin of religious systems. 24. Greek philosophy. 25. Creation
101	and early state of the earth
102	288
103	CHAPTEE IV.
104	" WHEN M(ERIS WAS KING," &C. — Chap. 13. [G. W.]
105	Rise of the Nile 16 cubits. 2. Differed in different parts of Egypt. 3. Oldest
106	Nilometer. 4. The lowering of the Nile in Ethiopia by the giving way of the
107	rocks at Silsilis. 5. Ethiopia affected by it, but not Egj'pt below Silsilis.
108	6. Other Nilometei's and measurements. 7. Length of the Egyptian
109	cubit
110	301
111	CHAPTEE V.
112	It THEY HAVE TWO QUITE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WRITING, ONE OF WHICH IS
113	CALLED SACRED, THE OTHER COMMON." — Chap. 36. [G. W.]
114	Hieratic and Demotic, the two sorts of letters written from right to left.
115	2. Hieroglyphics. 3. Three kinds of writing. 4. Hieratic. 5. Demotic, or
116	enchorial. 6. The thi-ee chai-acters. 7. First use of demotic. 8. Of sym-
117	bolic hieroglyphics : the ikonogi-aphic. 9. The tropical. 10. The enigmatic.
118	11. Symbolic also put with phonetic hieroglyphics. 12. Determinatives after
119	the word, or name of an object. 13. Initial letters for the whole words, to
p. 9
120	CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
121	CHAPTEE Y .—continued.
122	be called limited initial signs. 14. Distinct from other " mixed signs." 15.
123	Syllabic signs. 16. Medial vowel placed at the end of a word. 17. Earliest
124	use of hieroglyphics. 18. Mode of placing hieroglyphics. 19. Fii'st letter of
125	a word taken as a character. 20. Determinative signs. 21. They began with
126	representative signs. 22. The plui-al number. 23. Abstract ideas. 24. Pho-
127	netic system found necessary. 25. Some parts of the verb. 26. Negative
128	sign. 27. Invention of the real alphabetic writing Phoenician. 28. Greek
129	letters. 29. Digamma originally written. 30. Sinaitic inscriptions not of
130	the Israelites. 31. Tau iised for the cross. 32. Materials used for writing
131	upon. 33. The papyrus
132	Page 305
133	CHAPTEE VI.
134	" GYMNASTIC CONTESTS." — Chap. 91. [G.W.]
135	1. Gymnastic contests. 2. Game of ball. 3. Thimble-rig and other games.
136	4. Mora and draughts. 5. Pieces for draughts. 6. Dice. 7. Other
137	games
138	322
139	CHAPTEE VII.
140	<c GEOMETRY FIKST CAME TO BE KNOWN IN EGYPT, WHENCE IT PASSED INTO
141	GREECE."— Chap. 109, p. 179. [G. W.]
142	Greeks indebted to Egypt for early lessons in science. 2. Invention of geo-
143	metry. 3. Surveying, geography. 4. Early advancement of the Egyptians
144	in science. 5. Thales and others went to study in Egypt. 6. Pythagoras
145	borrowed iUhch from Egypt. 7. Heliocentric system. 8. Revived by Coper-
146	nicus. 9. Pythagoras and Solon in Egypt. 10. Great genius of the Greeks.
147	11. Herodotus unprejudiced. 12. The dial. 13. The twelve houi's, 14. The
148	division of the day by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. 15. The Egyptians
149	had 12 hours of day and of night, 16. The week of seven days in Egypt.
150	17. The Aztec week of nine days. 18. The seven-day division in Egypt.
151	19. The number seven. 20. Division by ten. 21. Greek and Egyptian month
152	and year of three parts
153	329
154	CHAPTEE VIII
155	HISTORICAL NOTICE OF EGYPT. [G. W.j
156	Fabulous period of hLstory — Rule of the Gods — Name of Menes ; supposed
157	to be Mizraim — Believed to be a real person by the Egyptians, and to have
158	founded Memphis. 2. This and Memphis — Egyptians from Asia — Memphis
159	older than Thebes. 3. Precedence of Upper Egypt. 4. Earliest notice of
160	Thebes — Absence of early buildings. 5. Contemporary kings — Ari'ange-
161	ment of the early dynasties. 6. Uncertainty of chronological dates — Date
162	of the Exodus. 7. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd dynasties — Menes and his successors.
163	8. In the 2nd dynasty sacred animals worshipped ; and women allowed to
p. 10
164	VI CONTENTS OF VOL. IT.
165	CHAPTER YlU.— continued.
166	hold the sceptre. 9. 4th and 5th dynasties. 10. The same customs in the
167	early Pyi-amid period — Moimt Sinai — Shafre built the 2nd pyi-amid.
168	11. 6th dynasty — The prenomen of kings.— 12. 7th, 8th, and 9th dynasties
169	— The Enentefs. 13. 11th dynasty — Contemporary kings. 14. 12th dy-
170	nasty — Osirtasen III. treated as a God. 15. The labyrinth. 16. The 13th
171	dynasty in Ethiopia. 17. Shepherd dynasties — The Hyk-sos expelled.
172	18. The 18th dynasty — The horse from Asia. 19. Thothmes I., II., and III.,
173	and Queen Amun-nou-het. 20. Conquests of Thothmes III. — His monu-
174	ments. 21. Amunoph III. and Queen Taia — The Stranger kings — Con-
175	quests of Amunoph III. 22. Country and features of the Stranger kings —
176	Eelated to Amunoph. 23. Expelled from Egypt. 24. King Horus. 25. The
177	19th dynasty — Remeses, Sethos, and Remeses the Great— Attack and
178	defence of fortresses — Pithom and Raamses — Canal to the Red Sea.
179	26. 20th dynasty — Remeses III. — His conquests and wealth — His sons.
180	27. 21st and 22nd dynasties — Priest kings. 28. /S/jesAo?!^, or Shishak — Con-
181	quers Judaea — Name of Yudah Melchi (kingdom of Judah). 29. Kings' names
182	on the Apis stelae. 30. The 23rd dynasty — Assyrian names of the Sheshonk
183	family. 31. The 24th dynasty — Bocchoris the Sa'ite — Power of Assyria
184	increasing. 32. The 25th dynasty of the Sabacos and Tirhaka. 33. The
185	26th dynasty — Psammetichus succeeded Tirhaka — Correction of chronology
186	— He married an Ethiopian princess. 34. War of Psammetichus and desertion
187	of his ti-oops. 35. Succeeded by Neco. 36. Circumnavigation of Africa —
188	Defeat of Josiah. 37. Power and fall of Apries — Probable invasion of Egypt
189	and substitution of Amasis for Apries by Nebuchadnezzar. 38. Amasis —
190	Flourishing state of Egypt — Privileges granted to the Greeks — Treaty with
191	Croesus — Persian invasion. 39. Defeat of the Egyptians — Conduct of Cam-
192	byses at first humane. 40. Egypt became a Persian province — 27th or
193	Persian dynasty — Revolt of the Egyptians. 41. 28th and 29th dynasties
194	of Egyptians. 42. 30th dynasty of Egyptians — Nectanebo II. defeated.
195	43. Ochus recovered Egypt. 44. Duration of the Egyptian kingdom Page 837
196	HISTORY OF HERODOTUS.
197	THE THIRD BOOK, ENTITLED THALIA.
198	Causes of quarrel between Persia and Egypt — Nitetis story (1-3). Aid lent by
199	Phanes (4). Passage of the Desert (5-9). Invasion of Egypt — Psammenitus
200	king (10). Murder of the children of Phanes — Battle of Pelusium (1 1).
201	Egyptian and Persian skulls (12). Siege and capture of Memphis — sub-
202	mission of the Libyans and Cyrenseans (13). Treatment of Psammenitus
203	(14-15). Treatment of the body of Amasis (16). Expeditions planned by
204	Cambyses (17-8). Phosnicians refuse to attack Carthage (19). Embassy to the
205	Ethiopians (20-4). Expedition fails (25). Failure of the expedition against
206	Ammon (26). Severities of Cambyses towards the Egyptians (27-9). His
207	outrageous conduct towards the Persians (30-5). His treatment of Croesus
208	(36). His madness (37-8). History of Polycrates — his connexion with
209	Amasis (39-43). He sends ships to assist Cambyses (44). Revolt of the
210	crews — Samos attacked (45). Aid sought from Sparta and Corinth (46-7).
211	Story of Periander (48-53). Siege of Samos (54-6). Fate of the rebels
p. 11
212	CONTENTS OP VOL. II. vii
213	HISTOEY OF R^EOBOTUS— continued.
214	(57-9). AVonders of Samoa (60). Revolt of the Magi — usurpation of the
215	Pseudo-Smerdis (61). The news reaches Cambyses — his wound, speech, and
216	death (62-6). Reign of the Magus (67). His detection by Otanes (68-9)
217	Otanes conspires — arrival of Darius (70). Debate of the conspirators (71-3).
218	Fate of Prexaspes (74-5). Overthrow of the Magi (76-9). Debate on the
219	best form of government (80-2). Decision of Otanes (83). Privileges of the
220	Six (84). Darius obtains the kingdom (85-7). His wives (88). Division of
221	the Empire into twenty Satrapies (89-93). Amount of the tribute (94-7).
222	Customs cf the Indians (98-105). Productiveness of the earth's extremities
223	(106-116). The river Aces (117). Fate of Intaphernes (118-9). Story of
224	Orcetes and Polycrates (120-5). Punishment of Orostes (126-8). Democedes
225	of Crotona cures Darius (129-130). His former history (131). His influence
226	— he cures Atossa (132-3). Atossa at his instigation requests Darius to
227	invade Greece (134). Persians sent to explore the coasts — Democedes
228	esQapes (135-8). Persian expedition against Samos to establish Syloson
229	(139-149). Revolt, and reduction of Babylon by the stratagem of Zopyrus
230	(150-8). Punishment ofthe rebels (159). Rewards of Zopyrus (160) Page 395
231	APPENDIX TO BOOK III.
232	ESSAY I.
233	ON THE WOBSHIP OF VENUS URANIA THEOUGHOUT THE EAST. — [g. W.]
234	1. Alilat. — Mylitta or Alitta, from wekd, " to bear children." 2. Had different
235	names in different countries. 3. A Nature-Goddess. 4. The Syrian Goddess.
236	5. The Paphian Venus, or Urania, identified with Astarte and Anaitis.
237	6. Tanat, or Anata. 7. Dianaof Ephesus. 8. The mother and child. 9. Alitta
238	and Elissa. 10. Gods of the Khonds. 11. Maut the mother. 12. Juno-
239	Lucina, Diana, and Astarte. 13. Europa and Cadmus. 14. Semiramis the
240	dove. 15. Derceto or Atargatis. 16. Athara and Athor. 17. Inscription at
241	Caervorran, and names of the Syrian Goddess. 18. Figure of Astarte.
242	19. Baal, Moloch, and other deities of Syria. 20. Arcles, Melicertes, or
243	Hercules. 21. Rimmon, and other Syrian deities — Some introduced into
244	Egypt
245	500
246	ESSAY II.
247	ON THE MAG IAN EE VOLUTION, AND THE REIGN OF THE PSEUDO-SMEEDIS.
248	1. Ordinary theory on the subject — the revolution a Median outbreak. 2. Proofs
249	to the contrary — (i.) from the inscriptions — (ii.) from the general tenor of
250	ancient history. 3. Unsound basis of the theory — the Magi not Medes.
251	4. The revolution really religious. 5. Proof of this from the inscriptions.
252	6. Religious ideas connected with the name of Darius 548
p. 12
253	viii CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
254	ESSAY III.
255	ON THE PERSIAN SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNMENT.
256	1. Uniformity of Oriental Governments. 2. Satrapial system of Persia. 3. Danger
257	of revolt — safeguards. 4. Power and wealth of the Satraps. 5. Institution
258	of Royal. Judges. 6. Fixity of the royal revenue, 7, The border Satraps.
259	8. Extra-satrapial dependencies. 9. Satrapies not always geographically con-
260	tinuous. 10. Modes by which the subjection of the conquered races was
261	maintained — (i.) Disarming — (ii.) Transplantation— (iii.) Maintenance of a
262	standing army. 11. Position and power of the monarch. 12. Privileges of
263	the Persians, 13. Gradations of i-ank among them Page 555
264	ESSAY IV.
265	ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF BABYLON.
266	1. Want of an accurate survey. 2. Great extent of Babylon according to
267	ancient writers, 3. No traces of the oi-iginal enceinte. 4. General plan of
268	the existing ruins. 5. Their position on the left bank of the Euphrates a
269	difi&culty — modes of meeting it. 6. Canal between the noi-thern and the
270	central ruins. 7. Mound of Babil, the temple of Belus — its present state.
271	8. Proofs of the identity. 9. Mounds of the Kasr and Amrdrn, the ancient
272	palace. 10. Site of the great reservoir. 11. Palace of Neriglissar, and
273	embankment of Nahunit. 12. Triangular enclosure, of the Parthian age.
274	13. The Birs-Nimrud— its present appearance. 14. Original plan of the Birs.
275	15. Its ornamentation. 16. The i?iVs rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar — his account
276	of the restoration
277	569
278	Note A. — Standard Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar
279	585
280	Note B. — Babylonian Researches of M. Oppert 587
281	Note C. — The Great Inscription of Darius at Behistun 590
p. 13
282	( ix )
283	LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
284	Page
285	Plan of Heliopolis
286	( Ch. 8, Bk. fi. )
287	i>
288	Ruins of Bubastis
289	(Ch. 138)
290	210
291	PlanofSais (Ch. 170)
292	259
293	The World of Herodotus . . . . _ At the end of Vol.. If.
294	BOOK II.
295	P. 13.
296	Map of the countiy about the mouth of the River Achelous.
297	P. 18, ch. 14, note K
298	(1.) The owner overlooking the ploughing and sowing of the land. A groom holds
299	the horses of his chariot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( Tliehcs.)
300	(2.) Ploughing scenes. One man drives the oxen, the other holds the plough. Over
301	the latter is the word liehi, " plough ;" and the other hieroglyphics seem to refer to the
302	"driving" of the oxen. (Comp. the woodcut in p. 21) .. (^Tornb at the Pyramids.)
303	P. 19, ch. 14.
304	(1.) Ploughing and hoeing. A small baiTel stands at the end of the furrows,
305	either containing seed, or rather some beverage for the ploughmen, as in Hom.
306	II. E. 541 {Belli Hassan.)
307	(2.) Ploughing, and sowing broadcast .. .. .. .. .. {Thebes.)
308	P. 20, ch. 14.
309	The main and lateral canals of an estate .. .. .. .. {Thebes.)
310	P. 21, ch. 14, note I
311	(1.) Raising water by the " ;?Aa<foo/," or pole and bucket .. .. {Thebes.)
312	(2.) Dri^Tng sheep over the land to tread in the grain .. {Tomb at the Pyramids.)
313	P. 22, ch. 14, note ^
314	(1.) The tritura, or treading out the com on the threshing-floor .. {Thebes.)
315	(2.) The ^rifiira, and winnowing .. .. .. .. .. {Thebes.)
316	P. 30, ch. 19, note 8,
317	Name of the God Nilus, ''Hapi."
318	P. 42, ch. 19, note ^
319	The three-headed Lion-God of Meroe.
320	P. 43, ch. 19, note '.
321	Name of the Ethiopian king Ergamun, called by the Greeks Ergamenes.
322	P. 45, ch. 30, note ^
323	Inscription of the Greek soldiei^s sent into Ethiopia by Psammetichus, written on
324	the left leg of the Colossus to the S. of the door of the gieat temple at Aboosimbel.
325	P. 48, ch. 32, note ^
326	View in the Little Oasis, neai- Zubbo.
327	P. 55, ch, 35, note \
328	Vertical loom, (i) the loom on the fiame with a coloured selvage ; (c c) the man has
329	the loom above him as he works. The shuttle (k) is not thrown, but draws the
330	thread through backwards and forwards by a hook at each end, as is still done in weav-
331	ing the Welsh whittle {Thebes.)
p. 14
332	X LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
333	Here the loom is below the women as they work. Figs. 5 and 6 makins; thread
334	over the one who twirls the spindle ; at d is the word Sat, " to twist" Beni Hassan.
335	P. 56, ch. 35, note *.
336	(No. I.) A Queen making an offering with a King .. .. .. (Thebes.')
337	P. 57, ch. 35, note *.
338	(No. II.) Women who held a high office in the sei-vice of Amuu ; — the PaUacides of
339	Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( Thebes.)
340	(No. III.) Women holding a particular office in the funeral ceremonies (Thebes.)
341	P. 58, ch. 35, ib.
342	(No. IV.) A ceremony performed by a man and a woman . . . . ( Thebes.)
343	P. 59, ch. 36, note \
344	^Vheat cut with the sickle; another gi"ain, probably Doom, plucked up by the
345	roots .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..' (Thebes.)
346	P. 59, ch. 36, note ».
347	(No. I.) Kneading the dough with the hand .. .. .. .. (Thebes.)
348	(No. II.) Kneading dough with the feet . . ( Thches, in the same picture.)
349	P. 60, ch. 36, note *.
350	Mode of wi-iting numbei-s fi-om right to left ; also in Indian and Hieratic, ami
351	Chinese.
352	P. 62, ch. 37, note K
353	(No. I.) Dress of the priests .. .. .. .. .. .. (Thebes.)
354	P. 63, ch. 37, ib.
355	(No. II.) Leopard-skin dress of the high-priest called (SCTrt .. .. (Thebes.)
356	(No. III.) Some priests officiating in a short kilt .. .. .. (Thebes.)
357	(No. IV.) Other diesses of priests .. .. .. .. .. (Thebes.)
358	P. 64, ch. 37, ib.
359	(No. V.) Wooden machine for gouffreying linen dresses .. (Florence Museum.)
360	(Fig. 2.) The di^asions of the same, of the real size.
361	P. 65, ch. 37, note \
362	Two wooden head-pillows, or rests .. .. .. .. .. (Thebes.)
363	P. 67, ch. 37, note «.
364	Title of the high-priest " Sem."
365	(Fig. 1) A writer's palette ; (fig. 2) the cubit of justice ; and (fig. 3) the cup
366	of libation, borne by the sacred scribe.
367	P. 68, ch. 38, note ^
368	Hieroglyphics signifying "to kill;" probably similar to those on the priest's signet,
369	or order for slajdng a victim.
370	P. 69, ch. 39, note ^
371	(No. I.) The foreleg and other joints.
372	(No. III.) An animal offered with the head, the foreleg, heart, and ribs, and a
373	water-bkd.
374	(No. IV.) The Aearf given to a poor Egyptian .. .. .. (Thebes.)
375	P. 70, ch. 39, ib.
376	(No. II.) The foreleg, the head, the heart, a whole goose, and other offerings of
377	bread, flowers, fiiiit, &c. . . . . . . . . (British Museum, from Thebes.)
378	P. 73, ch. 41, note^.
379	Cow-headed Goddess Ehe'.
380	P. 75, ch. 42, note ^
381	Vegetables. Figs. 5, 6, gourds ; 7, 8, raphanus or figl ; 3 and 4 aie sycamore figs.
382	P. 77, ch. 42, note ».
383	Name of Amun-ei or Thebes.
p. 15
384	LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. xi
385	P. 82, ch. 44, note ».
386	(Part I.) Glass-blowers {Beni Hassan.)
387	(Part II.) Glass-blowers
388	(^Thebes.)
389	The same occur at the tombs about the Pyramids, of the time of Shafre, about
390	2400 B.C.
391	P. 87, ch. 48, note \
392	Festoons supposed to be of ivy, but really of the Convolvulus, or of the Periploca
393	Secamone.
394	(Fig. 1) The thyrsus and leopard-skin ; (2) the thyrsus alone; (3) leaves supposed
395	to be ivy; (4) leaves having the character of those of the Peripfoca .. {Thebes.)
396	P. 88, ch. 48, note \
397	(No. II.) Military band : (1) trumpet, (2) tomtom or hand-drum, (3 defaced), (4)
398	clappers or crototo .. .. .. .. .. •• •• {Thebes.)
399	P. 89, ch. 48, ib.
400	(No. I.) Music : two harps, a flute, and a pipe, and voices. {Tomb at the Pyramids.)
401	(No. III.) Harp, guitar, double-pipe, lyie, tambourine . . . . ( Thebes.)
402	P. 90, ch. 48.
403	(No. IV.) Women playing the harp .. .. .. .. .- {Tliebes.)
404	(No. y.) Two other kinds of hai-p.
405	(No. VI.) Two others; and a stringed instrument with a neck {Found at Thebes.)
406	P. 100, ch. 58, note '.
407	(No. I.) A sacred ark, shiine, or boat .. .. .. •• •• {Thebes.)
408	P. 101, oh. 58, ib.
409	(No. II.) A sacred ark
410	{Thebes.)
411	P. 102, ch. 58, note \
412	High-priest oftering incense with sacred music, the harp, two flutes, and a guitar
413	{Leyden Museum^
414	P. 102, ch. 58, note ^
415	Name of Pasht, Bubastis, and Buto (?).
416	P. 104, ch. 61, note =.
417	Hieroglyphics meaning " Lord of the land of Hebai"
418	P. 106, ch. 62, note ^
419	Name of " Neith lady of Sais."
420	P. 108, ch. 63, notes.
421	A four-wheeled car . . . . . . {On mummy-bandages, Coll. d' Athanasi.)
422	P. Ill, ch. 65, note ^
423	(Fig. 1) Lock of hair on a child's hand ; (2 and 3) lock of hair on a prince's
424	head appended to the wig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( Thebes.)
425	P. 113, ch. 67, note \
426	The ichneumon .. .. .. .. .. .. .. {Tomb at Sakkdra.)
427	P. 119, ch. 72, note ^
428	(No. I.) The oxyrhinchus in bronze.
429	(No. II.) The lepidotus in bronze.
430	(No. III.) Men fishing .. .. .. .. .. -. {Beni Hassan.)
431	P. 120, ch. 72.
432	(No. IV.) Catching fish .. .. .. .. .. {Tomi at the Pyramids.)
433	P. 121, ch. 72.
434	(No. V.) A gentleman fishing, seated on a chair upon a boat .. .. {Thebes.)
435	P. 122, ch. 72, note -.
436	The Nile goose and a line, signifying " son."
p. 16
437	Xll
438	LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
439	P.
440	P.
441	P.
442	P.
443	(Thebes.)
444	. (Beni Hassan and Thebes.)
445	. {Tomb at the Pyramids.)
446	(Thebes.)
447	(Beni Hassan.)
448	(Thebes.)
449	(The finger, as of
450	.. (Thebes.)
451	P.
452	P.
453	P.
454	P.
455	P.
456	P.
457	P.
458	P.
459	P.
460	P.
461	P.
462	P.
463	P.
464	P.
465	122, ch. 73, note '.
466	(Figs. 1 and 2) The pure soul ; (3) the Phoenix
467	126, ch. 77, note '.
468	Glass bottles for wine . .
469	127, ch. 77, note ^
470	Drying and preparing fish
471	128, ch. 77, note I
472	(No. I.) Clap-nets
473	(No. n.) Net-traps for birds ..
474	129, ch. 77.
475	Catching and preser^Tng geese . .
476	Fig. 2 enjoias silence by putting his hand over his mouth
477	Harpocrates, is not the sign of silence, as generally supposed.)
478	130, ch. 78, note *.
479	Figure of Osiris introduced at a party.
480	133, ch. 81, note \
481	(No. I.) Linen dress with a fringe, and two othei-s. (No. ii.) Vaiious dresses
482	134, ch. 82, note '.
483	The hours of day and night
484	136, ch. 84, note *.
485	Ex- votos of an aim and ear
486	138, ch. 85, note '.
487	(No. I.) Women thiowing dust on their heads in token of grief . .
488	(No. II.) INIen beating themselves before a mummy in honour of Osiris
489	140, ch, 86, note \
490	Butchei-s sharpening their knives on a steel. (The same is represented at the tombs
491	about the Pyramids, of earlier times.) .. .. .. .. .. (Thebes.)
492	141, ch. 86, note \
493	Knives for killing a victim.
494	143, ch. 86, note \
495	(No. I.) Liturgies performed to mummies
496	144, ch. 86.
497	(No. II.) Other sei-vices, and female relations weeping
498	146, ch. 91, note^
499	Name of Egypt, Khem, or Chemi.
500	149, ch. 92, note ^
501	Presenting guests with necklaces of lotus-flowers, as they sit on a mat
502	150, ch. 92, note >.
503	The Nymphsea Nelumbo, or Indian lotus . . . . (From Roman Sculpture^
504	155, ch. 96, note \
505	(No. I.) Probable mode of securing the planks of ancient NUe boats.
506	(No. II.) Making a boat, and binding it with pappnis bands.
507	(Tombs at the Pyramids.)
508	156, ch. 96, note K
509	(No. ni.) Sail like that of a Chinese boat with the double mast of early times.
510	(Kom Ahmar.)
511	156, ch. 96, ib.
512	Boat apparently of fii-wood, with the usual sail
513	( Thebes.)
514	(Sakhdra.)
515	(Thebes.)
516	(Thebes.)
517	(Thebes.)
518	(Thebes.)
519	(Thebes.)
520	(Thebes.)
p. 17
521	LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. xiu
522	P. 157, ch. 96, note K
523	(No. IV.) Boats with sails wrought with coloui-s . . . , . , (Thebes.)
524	Cultivation of flax, and process of making ropes and linen cloth . . (Bent Hassan.)
525	P. 159, ch. 96, note ».
526	(No. I.) Boat of the dead .. .. .. .. .. .. (Thebes.)
527	(No. II.) A gentleman in a boat with a cabin, towed by his servants on a lake in his
528	gi'ounds . . , . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . (Thebes.)
529	P. 160, ch. 96, ib.
530	(No. in.) Large boat on the Nile .. .. .. .. (Eileithyias.)
531	(No. rv.) Boat of burthen
532	,. (Thebes.)
533	P. 161, ch. 97, note ^
534	(No. I.) Rescuing cattle from the inundation . . . . . . (Beni Hassan.)
535	(No. II.) A similar subject. . . . . . . . . . . (ib.)
536	P. 163, ch. 99, note \
537	Name of Menes.
538	P. 165, ch. 100, note ^
539	Two names of Nitocris.
540	P. 171, ch. 104, note \
541	A negro from the sculptures . . . . . . . . . . . . ( Thebes^
542	P. 174.
543	Supposed figure of Sesostris, near Smyrna.
544	P. 175, ch. 106, note \
545	Name of N. Ethiopia and of Phut.
546	P. 177, ch. 107, note '.
547	Statue on a sledge, 13 cubits in height, according to the hieroglyphics ; in a tomb
548	near El Bersheh, or rather near Dayr E' Nakhl.
549	(Fig. 1.) The statue bound upon a sledge, with ropes passing over pieces of leather, or
550	rather of lead, to prevent their injuring the stone. It is of an individual of rank,
551	" Thothothph, beloved of the king." — (2.) A man, probably beating time with his
552	hands, and giving out a verse of a song, to which ih^ men responded. — (3.) Seems
553	fi'om the hieroglyphics to be offering incense. — (4.) Pours grease from a vase upon the
554	road, probably covered with wood, on which the sledge glided. The back of the sledge
555	is cut so as to admit the points of levers, commonly used in Egypt and Assyria for
556	moving large moniunents, and mentioned in Herodot. ii. 175. — (5.) Egyptian soldiei-s.
557	— (6, 7, 8, 9.) Four rows of forty-three men each, dragging the statue. Some appear
558	to be foreigners, others Egyptians, and soldiers. — (10.) Men caiTying grease, or water.
559	— (11.) Others canying some implements. — (12.) Taskmasters or superintendents. —
560	(13, 14, 15, 16.) Superintendents and perhaps reliefs of men. In the columns of
561	hieroglyphics to the extreme right the nome mentioned is the " Hermopolite," and that
562	part of it " on the easf bank, where this tomb is hewn in the limestone rock.
563	P. 201, ch. 124, note \
564	Plan of the Pp*amids.
565	P. 203, ch. 125, note 3.
566	Mode of constructing a Pyramid.
567	P. 205, ch. 127, note '.
568	Names of Shofo, Shufu, Suphis, or Cheops ; and of Nou-Shufu.
569	P. 207, ch. 129, note ^
570	Name of Mencheres, or Mycerinus.
571	P. 211, ch. 134, note *.
572	Section of part of the third Pyi'amid, showing the original passage and chamber, and
573	the later ones.
p. 18
574	xiT LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTEATIOXS.
575	P. 213, cb. 135, note \
576	Spits or skewers of bronze .. .. .. . .{Gregorian Musewn, Rome .)
577	P. 216, ch. 136, note \
578	Brick-making at Thebes, showing how they mixed the mud and made the tales of
579	bricks, overlooked \>j task-mastere, as described in Exodus. The workmen were
580	foreigners, but not in this instance Jews .. , . . . . . . . {Thebes.)
581	P. 217, cb. 136, note*.
582	Brick Pyramid of Hawdra.
583	P. 236, cb. 152, note '.
584	Foreign auxiliaries in the time of Remeses III. .. .. .. {Thebes.)
585	P. 238, cb. 155, note *.
586	An Egyptian temple, surrounded by its temenos planted with trees. A procession
587	with a sacred shiine is enteiing the temenos from the hypathral building before the
588	entrance. Beyond are a villa, and villages in the plain, which is intereected by
589	canals from the Nile.
590	P. 260, cb. 171, note *.
591	(No. I.) The great serpent Apap or Aphophis, lying dead before the God Atmoo or
592	Atum.
593	P. 261, cb. 171, ib.
594	(No. n.) Aphophis in a human form pierced by the spear of Horus.
595	Legend of Atmoo, or Atum-Re the Sun, and Aphophis killed.
596	P. 265, cb. 175, note '.
597	(Xo. I.) The human-headed or andro-sphinx.
598	(No. II.) The ram-headed sphinx.
599	P. 266, cb. 175, ib.
600	(No. m.) The hawk-headed sphinx.
601	(No. IV.) The winged female sphinx.
602	(No. V.) A iabulous animal.
603	(No. Ti.) Andio-sphinx representing a king presenting an offeiing.
604	(No. VII.) Five other fabulous animals . . . . . . {Beni Hassan.)
605	P. 270, cb. 177, note \
606	Men presenting themselves before the magistrates or scribes.
607	P. 272, cb. 181, note «.
608	Name of Tashot.
609	P. 273, cb. 182, note ^
610	Artists painting on panel, and colouring a statue ; date about 2000 B.C.
611	{Beni Hassan.)
612	P. 274, cb. 182, note ».
613	Mode of drawing Egyptian figures in squai-es . . . . . . .. {Thebes.)
614	P. 276, cb. 182, note K
615	A coi-slet, probably. of linen worked with various coloured devices . . {Thebes.)
616	APPENDIX TO BOOK n.
617	CHAPTER n. p. 283.
618	The Twelve Egyptian Months.
619	CH, m. p. 292.
620	Hieroglyphics signifying "prayer."
p. 19
621	LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. xv
622	CH. V. p. 807.
623	The sentence " in the 3id year, 4th month of the waters (t. c. Mesore), the 20th
624	day, of King Ptolemy ;" in hieroglyphics, in hieratic, and in demotic.
625	Other hieroglyphics throughout this chapter.
626	CK. V. p. 318.
627	Hebrew, Phceuiciau, and Greek Alphabets .
628	CH, VI. p. 323.
629	(No. I.) Some of the numerous attitudes of wrestlers . . . . {Beni Hassan.)
630	(No. II.) Games of ball . . . , . . . . . . (»6.)
631	CH. VI, p. 324.
632	(No. III.) Another game of ball .. ,. .. .. (ii.)
633	(No. IV.) Game with a hoop. . . . . . . . . . . (»6.)
634	(No. V.) Game apparently to try who shall rise first from the gi'ound («6.)
635	CH. VI. p. 325.
636	(No. VI.) Tumbling women . . . . . . . . . . (t6.)
637	(No. VII.) liaising bags of sand . . . . . , . . (»6.)
638	(No. VIII.) Feats of tumbling, with the prize a necklace. They are as usual women.
639	(ib.)
640	CH. VI. p. 326.
641	(No. IX.) Thimble-rig, 2000 B.c (i6.)
642	(No. X.) Games of mora, and odd and even . . . . . . (t6.)
643	(No. XI.) Bull-fight
644	■ .. .. (ib.)
645	(No. XII.) Game of draughts .. ., .. .. .. (t6.)
646	CH. VI. p, 327,
647	(No. XIII.) Games of draughts and inora . . . . . . (ib.)
648	(No. XIV.) Pieces for the game of draughts.
649	(No. XV.) Other pieces for draughts.
650	(No. XVI.) Board of an unknown game with the men in the drawer.
651	(Dr. Abbott's collection.)
652	CH, VI. p. 328.
653	(No. XVII.) Another board , . . , (ib.)
654	(No. XVIII.) Aa unknown game ; and a man standing on his head (Beni Hassan.)
655	(No. xrx.) Other unknown games ., ,. ., ., (ib.)
656	CH, VIII. Y>. 340.
657	An-angeraent of the first 19 dynasties, showing the contemporaneousness of some of
658	them.
659	CH, VIII. p, 342.
660	Arrangement of the 1st and 3rd dynasties.
661	CH, vni, p. 365.
662	Name of the King Resi-toti, or Resi-tot, who followed King Horas (Apis tablet,)
663	CH, vill. p. 380.
664	Name of Psammetichus I.
665	CH. VIII. p. 381 .
666	Names of Tapesntapes (?), wife of Psammetichus I., and of the Ethiopian king
667	Peeonkh and his queen Araimatis her father and mother (Thebes and Gebel Berkel^
668	BOOK III.
669	P, 405, cli. 13, note \
670	Name of Memphis, " the white building," and " Jlen-nofi-e, the land of the Pyramid."
671	P, 412, oh. 18, note «,
672	Cooks putting geese into a boiler (Tomb near the Pyramid.)
p. 20
673	XVI LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
674	P. 413, ch. 18, note «,
675	Cooks roasting a goose and cutting up meat . . . . (I'onib near the Pyramid.)
676	P. 414, ch. 20, note \
677	The Helix lanthina.
678	P. 415, ch. 20, ib.
679	Statue of a Goddess found in Syria holding a shell in her hand.
680	P. 421, ch. 26, note «.
681	Name of Hebi, the city of the Great Oasis.
682	P. 424, ch. 28, note ^
683	(1.) Name of Apis or Hapi.
684	(2.) Figure of Apis-Osiris.
685	(3.) Bronze figure of the Bull Apis.
686	P. 434, ch. 37, note ».
687	Two figures of the pigmy-god Phthah-Sokar-Osiris.
688	P. 448.
689	Plan of Samos.
690	P. 454.
691	Ground-plan of the Herseum, or Temple of Juno, at Samos.
692	P. 463.
693	View of the Great Mound of Sus, the ancient Susa.
694	P. 487, ch. 97, note *.
695	Logs of ebony and ivory brought by Ethiopians as part of the tribute to the Pharaohs.
696	(Thehes^
697	P. 488, ch. 97, ib.
698	(1.) Ethiopians with an ebony club like those now used in Ethiopia.
699	(2.) The modem ebony clubs of Ethiopia.
700	P. 503, ch. 115, note .
701	Pig of tin found in Cornwall and now in the Truro Museum.
702	APPENDIX TO BOOK III.
703	Essay I., p. 539.
704	(No. 1.) Goddess with a child from Idalium in Cypnis. {In the Turin Museum.)
705	(No. 2.) Isis and Horns of Egypt.
706	P. 541.
707	(No. 3.) Statue found in Malta, supposed to be of Astarte or Venus, of Roman time
708	P. 543.
709	(No. 4.) Figure of Astarte, found in Etruria.
710	P. 544.
711	(No. 5.) Two heads found at Idalium in Cyprus . . {In the Turin Museum.)
712	Essay IV., p. 571.
713	Plan of the ruins of Babylon in their present state.
714	P. 574.
715	Kestoration of a portion of ancient Babylon.
716	P. 575.
717	View of the mound of Babil, or ancient temple of Belus.
718	P. 577.
719	View of the Kasr, or ancient Palace of Nebuchadnezzar,
p. 21
720	LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. xvil
721	P. 578.
722	Fragment of a fi ieze fi-orn the palace.
723	P. 581.
724	Original plan of the Birs-Nimnid, according to the conjecture of Mr. Layard.
725	P. 582.
726	Elevation restored according to actual measurements.
727	P. 588.
728	General map of the coimtry about Babylon, according to M. Oppert.
729	P. 589.
730	Restoration of the Royal Residence or Acropolis of Babylon, according to M. Oppert.
731	VOL. II.
p. 22
732	EEEATA.
733	P. 126, note ?, col. 2, line 15, after " i\Tnv," " a ladle," add " or ' smaU jug.'"
734	P. 161, note 7, col. 1, line 3, for " terrarum suarum videat," read " terrarum suarum
735	vident."
736	P. 170 (note ^ on cli. 103), at the end of Une 13 in col. 1, after " that important point,"
737	add " The trade of Colchis may, however, like its golden fleece, simply relate to the gold
738	brought to it from the interior."
739	In the Appendix, ch. viii. p. 390, line 6 from the bottom of the page, on " built by
740	him" add this note, " Some suppose this to be Dai'ius Nothus."
741	P. 569, line 5 of the text, for " British," read " Indian."
742	^ A Map of the Persian Empire, with the limits of the Twenty
743	Satrapies of Darius, intended for Vol. II., not being ready, will
744	be inserted in Vol. III.
p. 23
745	THE
746	HISTORY OF HERODOTUS.
747	THE SECOND BOOK ENTITLED EUTERPE.
748	1. Ox the deatli of Cyrus, Cambyses his son by Cas-
749	sanclane daughter of Pharnaspes took the kingdom.
750	Cassandane had died in the lifetime of Cyrus, who had
751	made a great mourning for her at her death, and had
752	commanded all the subjects of his empire to observe the
753	like. Cambyses, the son of this lady and of Cyrus,
754	regarding the Ionian and ^olian Greeks as vassals
755	of his father, took them with him in his expedition
756	against Egypt ^ among the other nations which owned
757	his sway.
758	* The date of the expedition of
759	Cambyses against Egypt cannot be
760	fixed with absolute certainty. Mane-
761	tho, whose authority is of the greatest
762	importance, gave Cambyses, according
763	to Africanus (ap. Syncell. p. 141), a
764	reigL of six years in Egypt, which
765	wordd place his invasion in B.C. 527.
766	Eusebius, however (Chron. Can. Pars
767	I. p. 105), reports Manetho differently,
768	and himself agrees nearly with Dio-
769	dorus (i. 68), who puts the expedition
770	in the 3rd year of the 63rd Olympiad,
771	or B.C. 525. This date, which is the
772	one ordinarily received, is, on the
773	whole, the most probable.
774	It is curious that Herodotus, whose
775	principal object, in Books i. to v., is
776	to trace the gradual growth of the
777	Persian power, shuuld say nothing
778	VOL. II.
779	directly of the first four years of Cam-
780	byses, omitting thereby so important
781	an event as the subjection of Phoenicia,
782	which was certainly accomplished by
783	him. (See below, iii. 34, and comp.
784	note to Book iii. ch. 19.) This period
785	probably contained, besides the sub-
786	mission of Phoenicia, and of Cyprus,
787	the reduction or submission of Cilicia,
788	which lay in the same quarter. Cilicia,
789	which was independent of the great
790	Lydian kingdom (supra, i. 28), and
791	which was not reduced, so far as ap-
792	pears, by either Cyrus or Har^jagus,
793	— for the contrary statement of Xeno-
794	phon (Cyrop. i. i. § 4), who ascribes
795	to Cyrus the conquest of Cilicia, Cy-
796	prus, Phoenicia, and Egypt (!) deserves
797	no credit — must have been added to
798	the empire either by Cambyses or by
p. 24
799	ANTIQUITY OF THE EGYPTIANS,
800	Book II.
801	2. Now the Egyptians, before the reign of their king
802	Psammetichus, believed themselves to be the most
803	ancient of mankind.^ Since Psammetichus, however,
804	made an attempt to discover who were actually the
805	primitive race,^ they have been of opinion that while
806	they surpass all other nations, the Phrygians surpass
807	them in antiquity. This king, finding it impossible to
808	make out by dint of inquiry what men were the most
809	ancient, contrived the following method of discovery : —
810	He took two children of the common sort, and gave
811	them over to a herdsman to bring up at his folds, strictly
812	charging him to let no one utter a word in their pre-
813	sence, but to keep them in a sequestered cottage, and
814	from time to time introduce goats to their apartment,
815	see that they got their fill of milk, and in all other
816	respects look after them. His object herein was to
817	know, after the indistinct babblings of infancy were
818	Darius, and is most probably a con-
819	quest of tlie former. These events
820	would serve to occupy Cambyses dur-
821	ing his first four years, and explain the
822	reason why he deferred the Egyptian
823	expedition, alreadv designed by Cyrus
824	(i. 153), till his fiTth.
825	^ This affectation of extreme anti-
826	quity is strongly put by Plato in his
827	Timajus (p. 22. B), where the Greek
828	nation is taxed by the Egyptians with
829	being in its infancy as compared witli
830	them. According to the account
831	wliich Herodotus gives below (ch.
832	142), the priests in some places would
833	seem to have ]>retended, in their dis-
834	cussions with foreigners, to an anti-
835	quity of above 11,000 years for their
836	nation. The entire number of years,
837	however, assigned by Manetho to his
838	30 d\masties of kings did not greatly
839	exceed 5000, and Syncellus rei)orts
840	Manetho as claiming for the monarchy
841	no longer actual duration than 3555
842	years before the conquest by Alex-
843	ander. (See Miiller's Fr. Hist. Gr.,
844	vol. ii. p. 534.) Even this view,
845	however, seems to be extravagant, for
846	it places the accession of .Menes in
847	B.C. 3883, which is considerably be-
848	fore the Deluge, according to the
849	highest computation. Still the Egyp-
850	tian numbers are moderate compared
851	with those of some other nations.
852	The Babylonians counted 468,000
853	years from their first king Alorus to
854	the conquest by Cyrus (Beros. ap.
855	Euseb. Chron. Can. i. j). 5-18 ; com-
856	pare Brandis, Eerum Ass. Temp.
857	Emendata, pp. 16-17); and the Indians
858	and Chinese trace their history for a
859	still longer period.
860	The Egyptian claims to a high
861	relative antiquity had, no doubt, a
862	solid basis of truth. It is probable
863	that a settled monarchy was esta-
864	blished in Egj'pt earlier than in any
865	other country. Babylonian history
866	does not go back beyond b.c. 2234.
867	Egyptian begins nearly 500 years
868	earlier.
869	* Tlie disposition on the part of
870	Psammetichus towards scientific en-
871	quiry is noticed again in ch. 28.
872	Perhaps the contact with the Greeks,
873	which began in his reign (ch. 154),
874	caused the development of the Egyp-
875	tian mind in this direction.
p. 25
876	Chap. 2, 3. AND THE PHRYGIANS— " BECOS " STORY.
877	3
878	over, what word they would first articulate. It hap-
879	pened as he had anticipated. The herdsman obeyed
880	his orders for two years, and at the end of that time,
881	on his one day opening the door of their room and
882	going in, the children both ran up to him with out-
883	stretched arms, and distinctly said " Becos." When
884	this first happened the herdsman took no notice ;
885	but afterwards when he observed, on coming often to
886	see after tliem, that the word was constantly in their
887	mouths, he informed his lord, and by his command
888	brought the children into his presence. Psammetichus
889	then himself heard ""them say the word, upon which he
890	proceeded to make inquiry what people there was who
891	called anything " becos," and hereupon he learnt that
892	" becos " was the Phrygian name for bread.* In con-
893	sideration of this circumstance the Egyptians yielded
894	their claims, and admitted the greater antiquity of the
895	Phrygians.
896	3. That these were the real facts I learnt at Memj^his
897	from the priests of Tulcan. The Greeks, among other
898	foolish tales, relate that Psammetichus had the children
899	brought up by women whose tongues he had previously
900	cut out ; but the priests said their bringing up was
901	such as I have stated above. I got much other in-
902	formation also from conversation with these priests
903	while I was at Memphis, and I even went to HeliojDolis
904	and to Thebes,^ expressly to try whether the priests of
905	* The word /SeKos has been thought
906	* to connect with the German " backen "
907	and our " bake." Lassen, however,
908	thro'^vs doubt on this connexion, and
909	suggests a formation from the Sanscrit
910	root pac, which becomes (he says) in
911	Greek n-eV-o), Latin co^'-uo, German
912	coch-en, our " cook," Servian pec-en,
913	&c. (See his Essay ' LTeber die Ly-
914	kischen Inschriften, und die Alten
915	Sprachen Klein Asiens,' p. 369.) But
916	this connexion, which may be allowed,
917	does not prevent the other frc)m being
918	also real. See on this point, and on
919	the general subject of the Phrygian
920	language, the Essays appended to
921	Book i. Essay xi., " On the Ethnic
922	Affinities of the Nations of Western
923	Asia," § 12. If the story has any
924	trath in it, the children probably (as
925	Larcher observes) were imitating the
926	bleating of the goats. (See note in
927	Appendix to this Book, ch. i. § 1.)
928	* The name of Thebes is almost
929	always written in the plural by the
930	Greeks and Romans — Orj^ai, ThebcT3
931	B 2
p. 26
932	4 EGYPTIAN DISCOVERIES — THE SOLAR YEAR. Book II.
933	those places would agree in their accounts with the
934	priests at Memphis. The Heliopolitans have the repu-
935	tation of being the best skilled in history of all the
936	Egyptians.® What they told me concerning their reli-
937	gion it is not my intention to repeat, except the names
938	of their deities, which I believe all men know equally.
939	If I relate anything else concerning these matters, it
940	will only be when compelled to do so by the course of
941	my narrative.'^
942	4. Now with regard to mere human matters, the
943	accounts which they gave, and in which all agreed,
944	were the following. The Egyptians, they said, were
945	the first to discover the solar year, and to portion out
946	its course into twelve parts. They obtained this know-
947	ledge from the stars. (To my mind they contrive
948	their year much more cleverly than the Greeks, for
949	these last every other year intercalate a whole month,^
950	but the Egyptians, dividing the year into twelve
951	months of thirty days each, add every year a space of
952	five days besides, whereby the circuit of the seasons is
953	made to return with uniformity.^) The Egyptians, they
954	— but Pliny writes, " Thebe portariim
955	centum nobilis fama." The Egjqotian
956	name of Thebes was Ap, ov A'pe, the
957	" head," or " capital." This, with the
958	feminine article, became Tape', and in
959	the Memphitic dialect Thape, jiro-
960	nounced, as by the Copts, Thaba,
961	whence e^/3at in Ionic Greek. The
962	oldest known monuments in Western
963	Thebes were of Amun-m-he I. at Kar-
964	nak, and of his successor Osirtasen I.,
965	who ruled immediately after the 6th
966	dynasty ended at Memphis, about
967	B.C. 2080.— [G. W.]
968	* Heliopolis was the great seat of
969	learning, and the imiversity of Egypt ;
970	and that it was one of the oldest cities
971	is proved by the obelisk of Osirtasen
972	I. of the 12th dynasty. See below
973	note 7 on ch. 8.— [G. W.]
974	' For instances of the reserve which
975	Herodotus here promises, see chajiters
976	45, 4:6, 47, 48, Gl, 62, 65, 81, 132, 170,
977	and 171. The secrecy in matters of
978	religion, which was no doubt enjoined
979	upon Herodotus by the Egyptian
980	priests, did not seem strange to a
981	Greek, who was accustomed to it in
982	the "mysteries" of his o'wn country-
983	men.
984	^ Vide supra, i. 32, and see note
985	ad loc.
986	^ This at once proves they inter-
987	calated the quarter daj% making their
988	year to consist of 365? days, without
989	which the seasons could not return to
990	the same periods. The fact of. He-
991	rodotus not understanding their me-
992	thod of intercalation does not argue
993	(as Goguet seems to think) that the
994	Egjq^tians were ignorant of it. Their
995	having fixed the Sothic period in 1322
996	B.C., and ascertained that 1460 Sothic
997	were equal to 1461 vulgar or " vague "
998	years, as well as the statements of
999	ancient authors, decide the question.
p. 27
1000	Chap. 4.
1001	THE TWELVE GODS.
1002	went on to affirm, first brought into use the names of
1003	the twelve gods,^*^ which the Greeks adopted from them ;.
1004	and first erected altars, images, and temples to the
1005	gods ; and also first engraved upon stone the figures
1006	of animals. In most of these cases they proved to me
1007	that what they said was true. And they told me that
1008	the first man^ who ruled over Egypt was Men,^ and that
1009	in his time all Egypt, except the Thebaic canton, was
1010	a marsh,^ none of the land below lake Moeris then
1011	But for the date of a king's reigu they
1012	used the old year of 360 daj's ; and
1013	the months were not reckoned from
1014	his accession, but were part of the
1015	current year. Thus, if he came to the
1016	tlu'one on the' 10th of the last month
1017	of the year, or Mesore', he would date
1018	in the 1st year, the 12th month, tlie
1019	10th day ; and his second year would
1020	be in the followino; month 'Jlioth, or
1021	25 da\'s after his accession. The Jews
1022	appear to have done the same. (See the
1023	Appendix to thisBookjCH.ii.) — [G.W.j
1024	'^ Some suppose these to be the
1025	twelve Gods of Olympus, the same as
1026	the Consentes of the Romans, given
1027	l)y Varro,
1028	" Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus,
1029	Mars,
1030	Mercurius, Jovi,Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo,"
1031	and that they do not refer to any ar-
1032	rangement of the Egyptian Pantheon ;
1033	but in ch. 1-15 Herodotus distinctly
1034	mentions the tliree orders of Egyptian
1035	Gods, the first two consisting of eight
1036	and twelve, and the third " born of
1037	the twelve." He also shows how
1038	much older some were considered in
1039	Egypt than in Greece ; Pan being one
1040	of the eight oldest, and Hercules of
1041	the twelve ; and says (ii. 43) that
1042	Neptune was a " God quite unknown
1043	to the Egyptians." Again in ch. 4 he
1044	distinctly states they had twelve Gods.
1045	The Etruscans had twelve Great Gods ;
1046	the Romans probably derived that
1047	number from them. — (See note in
1048	Appendix, ch. iii. § 1.) — [G. W.J
1049	' According to the chronological
1050	tables of the Egyptians the Gods were
1051	represented to have reigned first, and
1052	after them Menes the Thinite ; and
1053	the same is fouud recorded in the
1054	Turin Papyrus of Kings, as well as in
1055	Manetho and other writers. INIanetho
1056	gives them in this order : — 1. Vulcan
1057	(Pthah); 2. Helios (He), the Sun ;
1058	3. Agathoda^mon (Hor-Hat, or pos-
1059	sibly Noum) ; 4. Chronos (Seb) ; 5.
1060	Osiris ; 6. Typhon (properly Seth) ;
1061	and 7, Horus. In the Papyrus there
1062	remain only Seb, Osiris, Seth, Horus,
1063	Thoth, Thmei (or Mei " Truth "), and
1064	apparently Horus (the Younger), who
1065	was "the last God who reigned in
1066	Egypt." (See n, « ch. 43, u. ' ch. 99,
1067	aiul Tn. P. W., p. 7-11.) Menes (Me-
1068	nai)is represented by some to have been
1069	a conqueror ; not that tlie Egyptians
1070	then obtained possession of the valley
1071	of the N ile for the first time ; for he was
1072	from This, and their early immigration
1073	from Asia happened longbeibre. But
1074	the establishment of royalty intro-
1075	duced luxury into Egypt, and Tne-
1076	phachthus (Tec)matis of Pint, de Is.
1077	8), the father of Bocchoris of the 24th
1078	dynasty, put up a curse "against
1079	Meinis " (Menes) in a temple at Thebes
1080	for having led the Egyptians from
1081	their previous simple and frugal habits.
1082	Diodorus (i. 45) says also that Menas
1083	was the first who introduced the wor-
1084	ship of the Gods, and sacrifices, the
1085	use of letters, couches, and rich carpets.
1086	Cp. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. v. 35 on Frugal
1087	Repasts. See App. ch. viii. — [G. W.]
1088	'^ Herodotus does not call this king
1089	Menes, or Menas (as Diodorus, i. 45),
1090	but Men. The Egyptian form is 3Pna
1091	according to Bvmsen and Le]isius.
1092	^ Note, besides the improbability of
1093	such a change, the fact that Menes was
1094	the reputed founder of Memphis, whicji
p. 28
1095	6
1096	EGYPT AN ACQUIRED COUNTRY.
1097	Book' II
1098	showing itself above the surface of the water. This is
1099	a distance of seven days' sail from the sea up the
1100	river.
1101	5. What they said of their country seemed to me
1102	very reasonable. For any one who sees Egypt, with-
1103	out having heard a word about it before, must perceive,
1104	if he has only common powers of observation, that the
1105	Egypt to which the Glreeks go in their ships is an
1106	acquired country, the gift of the river.* The same is
1107	true of the land above the lahe, to the distance of three
1108	days' voyage, concerning which the Egyptians say
1109	nothing, but which is exactly the same kind of country.
1110	The following is the general character of the region.
1111	In the first place, on approaching it by sea, when you
1112	are still a day's sail from the land, if you let down a
1113	sounding-line you will bring up mud, and find yourself
1114	is far to the north of this lake ; and
1115	that Busiris, near the coast, the reputed
1116	burial-place of Osiris, Buto, Pelusium,
1117	and other towns of the Delta, were
1118	admitted by the Egyptians to be of
1119	the earliest date. — [Ct. W.j
1120	* Vide infra, ch. 10, and note ad loc.
1121	The theory liad been started by He-
1122	cata3us, who made use of the same
1123	expression. (See Arrian. Exp. Al.
1124	V. 6.)
1125	[Herodotus observes that the same
1126	might be said of the country above
1127	for three days' sail ; and exactly the
1128	same appearance might have struck
1129	him throughout the whole valley of
1130	the Nile. But though the depth of
1131	the soil has greatly increased, and is
1132	still increasing, in . various ratios in
1133	different parts of the valley, the first
1134	deposit did not take place after man
1135	existed in Egypt ; and as marine pro-
1136	ductions have not been n;et witli in
1137	boriug to the depth of 40 feet in the
1138	Delta, it is evident that its soil was
1139	de}iositcd from the very first on a
1140	space already above the level of the
1141	Mediterranean. The formation of the
1142	Delta of Egypt is not like tliat of
1143	some other rivers, wliere the land has
1144	been protruded far into the sea ; on
1145	the contrary, the Nile, after pursuing
1146	its course through the alluvial soil,
1147	enters the sea at the same distance
1148	north of the Lake Moeris as it did in
1149	the age of the early kings of Egypt;
1150	The sites of the oldest cities are as
1151	near the sea-shore as when they were
1152	inhabited of old ; and yet the period
1153	now elapsed since some of them were
1154	built is nearly 'double that between
1155	Menes and Herodotus. I have already
1156	in another work explained the mistake
1157	respecting the Pharos I. having once
1158	been distant from Egypt (At. Eg. W.
1159	vol. i. p. 7),owing to the name AiyvTrroy
1160	in Homer signifying (not the country,
1161	but) the " Nile ;" and the Pharos I. and
1162	the coast of Alexandria being both roch,
1163	the distance between them has alwa\s
1164	been the same. Another great reason
1165	for the Delta not encroaching on the
1166	sea is that the land is always sinking
1167	along the north coast of Egypt (while
1168	it rises at the head of the lied Sea) ;
1169	and there is evidence to show that tlie
1170	Mediterranean has encroached, and
1171	that the Delta has lost instead of gain-
1172	ing, along the whole of its extent from
1173	Canopus to Pelusium. — G. W.j
p. 29
1174	Chap, n, 0.
1175	ITS LENGTH.
1176	in eleven fathoms' water, which shows that the soil
1177	washed down by the stream extends to that distance.^
1178	6. The length of the country along shore, according
1179	to the bounds that we assign to Egypt, namely from
1180	the Plinthinetic gulf "^ to lake Serbonis, which extends
1181	along the base of Mount Casius, is sixty schoenes/ The
1182	nations wdiose territories are scanty measure them by
1183	the fathom ; those whose bounds are less confined, by
1184	the furlong ; those who have an ample territory, by
1185	the parasang ; but if men have a country which is very
1186	vast, they measure it by the schoene.^ Now the length
1187	of the parasang is thirty furlongs,^ but the schoine,
1188	* The distance j^ou see the Medi-
1189	terranean discoloured hy the Nile
1190	during the inundation is very great,
1191	and the same takes place in a minor
1192	degree at the mouths of rivers on the
1193	S^'rian coast, but without forming
1194	any deltas ; nor is the shallow sea off
1195	the coast of Egypt more a part of the
1196	Delta of the Nile now than whep
1197	sormded in Herodotus' time, about
1198	2300 years ago ; and 11 orgyies (or
1199	fatlioms) at a day's sail from the coast
1200	would alarm a sailor even at the pre-
1201	sent day. For you only come into
1202	11 fathoms water at about 12 or 13
1203	miles off the coast, about Abookir ;
1204	and at 25 or 30 miles you have 60,
1205	70, 80, and 90 fathoms, with sand
1206	and mud. At 5 or 6 miles from the
1207	mouth of the Nile the water on the
1208	surface is nearly fresh, and the bottom
1209	mostly a stiff mud. The longest day's
1210	sail, according to Herodotus (iv. 86), is
1211	700 stadia, about 79 2 Eng. m., or
1212	(infra, ch. 9) 540 stadia, about 61
1213	miles, where the soundings would be
1214	at least the same number of fathoms.
1215	-[G. W.]
1216	" Plinthine was a town near the
1217	Lake Mareotis (Strabo, xvii. p. 1133 ;
1218	Ptol. iv. c. 5 ; Scylax. Perip. 105).
1219	From it the lake, as well as the bay,
1220	was sometimes called " Plinthinetan."
1221	The name " Arapotes," given in Pliny
1222	(v. 10) to this lake is evidently a false
1223	reading. It should be Racotis, and
1224	applies to Alexandria. — [G. W.]
1225	' The schojne, an Egyi)tian mea-
1226	sure, varied from 30 and 32 to 40
1227	stadia, according to Pliny (v. 10, xii.
1228	14) ; and Strabo distinctly says (xvii.
1229	]). 1140) it was of various lengths in
1230	difierent parts of Egypt. Herodotus
1231	says it was equal to 6(.) stadia, making
1232	the length of the coast 3600 stadia,
1233	which, at 600 feet to the stadium,
1234	would be more than 400 Eng. m.
1235	The real length of the coast from the'
1236	Bay of Plinthine at Taposiris, or at
1237	Plinthine, even to the eastern end of
1238	the Lake Serbonis, is by the shore
1239	little more than 300 Eng. m. Diodorus
1240	estimates the breadth of Egypt by the
1241	coast at 2000 stadia ; and Strabo gives
1242	only 1770 stadia from the Temple of
1243	Jupiter Casius at the Serbonic Lake
1244	to Pharos, whicli, added to 200 stacha
1245	to Taposiris, make 1970 stadia. The
1246	real distance from Casius to Pharos is
1247	about 1944 stadia, and from Pharos
1248	to Taposiris or to Plinthine, nearly
1249	260, being a total of about 2204
1250	stadia.— [G. W.]
1251	^ Some might imagine this to be
1252	confimied by modern custom ; the
1253	English measuring by miles, the
1254	French by leagues, the Geniians by
1255	the " meile," of more than four times
1256	our mile in length ; but this will not
1257	hold good generally, and the Piussian
1258	werst is only about tAvo-thirds hf
1259	an English mile, or 1167 yards. —
1260	rG. w.]
1261	' See note on Book v. ch. 53.
p. 30
1262	8
1263	BREADTH AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.
1264	Book II.
1265	which is an Egyptian measure, is sixty furlongs.^ Thus
1266	the coast-line of Egypt would extend a length of three
1267	thousand six hundred furlongs.
1268	7. From the coast inland as far as Heliopolis the
1269	hreadth of Egypt is considerable, the country is flat,
1270	without springs, and full of swamps." The length of
1271	the route from the sea up to Heliopolis is almost ex-
1272	actly the same as that of the road which runs from the
1273	' This would be more than 36,000
1274	English feet, or nearly 7 miles.
1275	The Greek a-xolvos, " rope," is the
1276	same word which signifies rush, of
1277	which ropes are still made in Egypt
1278	and in other countries, and it has
1279	been singularly transferred to the
1280	skein of our modern measure for
1281	thread and silk. — [G. W.J
1282	* Heliopolis stood on the edge of
1283	the desert, about 4j miles to the E.
1284	of tlie apex, of the Delta ; but the
1285	alluvial land of the Delta extended
1286	5 miles farther to the eastward of that
1287	city, to what is now the Birket-el-
1288	Hag. The mountains to the S. of
1289	Heliopolis closing in to the westward
1290	towards the Nile make the valley
1291	narrow in that part, and throughout
1292	the rest of its course from the S.
1293	The southern point of the Delta ap-
1294	pears formerly to have extended fur-
1295	ther up the river (i. e. south) than at
1296	present, and to have been nearlj' op-
1297	posite the modern village of Shoobra
1298	(see M. Eg. W. vol. i. p. 401). At
1299	the time and long after Cairo was
1300	founded, the Nile ran more to the
1301	eastward, as Mr. Lane has shown,
1302	under its western walls.
1303	The accumulation of alluvial soil at
1304	the base of the obelisk of Osirtasen at
1305	Heliopolis, as around the sitting Co-
1306	lossi in the plain at Thebes, has been
1307	often appealed to for determining the
1308	rise of the alluvial soil within a cer-
1309	tain period, but as there is no possi-
1310	bility of ascertaining how far it stood
1311	above the reach of the inundation
1312	when first put up, we have no base
1313	fbr any calculation. The water of
1314	the inundation having been for ages
1315	kept out, according to Egyptian cus-
1316	tom, from the enclosure in which the
1317	temple stood, the accumulation of de-
1318	jiosit there was the more rapid when
1319	in after times the water was admitted,
1320	which readily accounts for " so great
1321	a thickness of one kind of sediment
1322	without any sign of successive dei)0-
1323	sition," which seems to have presented
1324	a difficulty to Mr. Horner.
1325	I have supposed the deposit to
1326	have been raised at Elephantine' about
1327	9 feet in 1700 years, and at Theljes
1328	about 7 ; but this is very uncertain.
1329	The increase is of course much less
1330	the farther you descend the valley,
1331	and at the mouth of the Nile it is
1332	very small ; for it is there lessened
1333	far more than in the same decreasing
1334	ratio as between Elephantine and He-
1335	liopolis, owing to the greater extent of
1336	land, east and west, over which the
1337	inundation spreads, so that in a sec-
1338	tion representing the accumulated soil
1339	and the level of the low Nile, the
1340	angle of inclination would be much
1341	smaller from the apex of the Delta
1342	to the sea, than from Thebes to the
1343	Delta. " Thus," as Mr. Horner says,
1344	" while the rise of the river at the
1345	island of Eoda is 24 feet, near Rama-
1346	nyeh, about (35 miles in a direct line
1347	N. of the apex of the Delta, the difter-
1348	ence between the highest and lowest
1349	water is about 13 feet, and at Eosetta
1350	and Damietta not more than 42
1351	inches." The Nile at Asouan is said
1352	to be 300 feet above its level at Cairo,
1353	and 365 above the Mediterranean.
1354	The distance from the Rosetta mouth
1355	to Cairo is 154 miles, from Cairo to
1356	Asouan 578, following all the bends
1357	of the river, which give a total of
1358	732 miles from the sea to the First
1359	Cataract.
1360	According to M. Linant, the volume
p. 31
1361	Chap. 7, 8. DISTANCE OF HELIOPOLIS FROM THE SEA.
1362	9
1363	altar of the twelve gods at Athens ^ to the temple of
1364	Olympian Jove at Pisa.* If a person made a calcula-
1365	tion he would find but a very little difference between
1366	the two routes, not more than about fifteen furlongs ; for
1367	the road from Athens to Pisa falls short of fifteen hun-
1368	dred furlongs by exactly fifteen/ whereas the distance
1369	of Heliopolis from the sea is just the round number.®
1370	8. As one proceeds beyond Heliopolis^ up the coun-
1371	of water ^wured during 24 hours into
1372	the Mediterranean by the Kile, when
1373	low, is —
1374	By the Rosetta brantli .
1375	By the UamieUa branch
1376	Cubic metres .
1377	Cubic metres.
1378	79,532,551,728
1379	71,033,840,640
1380	150,566,392,368
1381	When high 47^,317,838,960
1382	,
1383	227,196,S2s,480
1384	705,514,667,440
1385	At Sioot, which is about half-\\ay
1386	from Asouau to Teraneh, the French
1387	engineers found that in every second
1388	of time the mass of water that passes
1389	any one point is 678 cubic metres at
1390	low Xile, and 10,247 at high Kile;
1391	and, according to M. Linant, at Cairo
1392	414 cubic metres at low, and 9440,
1393	at high Nile. (See Mr. Horner's Me-
1394	moir in Trans. E. Society, vol. 145,
1395	p. 101-138.)
1396	1"he average fall of the river be-
1397	tween Asouan and Cairo is " little
1398	more than half a foot in a mile, viz.
1399	0*54 feet, and from the foot of the
1400	First Cataract to the sea is 0-524 feet
1401	in a mile ;" but from Cairo to the
1402	Damiett{\ mouth, according to the same
1403	authority (ib. p. 114), "the average
1404	fall is only 3f inches in a mile." —
1405	[G. W.]
1406	* The altar of the twelve gods
1407	at Athens stood in the Forum, and
1408	seems from this ]iassage and from
1409	one or two -inscriptions (Rose, Tab.
1410	xxxii. p. 251 ;cf. Boeckh, Corp. Ins. i.
1411	i. p. 32) to have served, like the gilt
1412	pillar {inillkiriuvi aurtum) in the Fo-
1413	rum at liome, as a central point from
1414	which to measure distances. It was
1415	originally erected by Pisistratus, the
1416	son of the tyrant Hippias, but was
1417	afterwards enlarged and beautified by
1418	the Athenian people. (Tbucyd. vi.
1419	54.) Adjacent to this altar was the
1420	enclosure where votes for ostracism
1421	were taken. (Leake's Athens, p. 1G3,
1422	note •>.)
1423	■* This mention of Pisa is curious,
1424	considering that it had been destroyed
1425	so long before (b.c. 572) by the Eleans
1426	(Pausan. vi. xxii. § 2), and that it
1427	had certainly not been rebuilt by the
1428	close of the Peloponnesian war (Xen.
1429	Hell. III. ii. § 31, comp. vii. iv. § 28).
1430	Probably Herodotus intends Olj-mpia
1431	itself rather than the ancient town,
1432	which was six stades distant (Scliol.
1433	ad Pind. 01. x. 55) in the direction
1434	of Harpinna (Pans. vi. xxi.-xxii.), and
1435	therefore doubtless in the vicinity of
1436	the modem village of Mirdku (see
1437	Leake's Morea, ii. p. 211), with which
1438	some are inclined to identify it.
1439	(Muller's Dorians, ii. p. 463, E. T.
1440	Kiepert, Blatt. vii.)
1441	* The correctness of this measure-
1442	ment, as compared with others in
1443	Herodotus, or indeed in the Greek
1444	writers generally, has been noticed by
1445	Col. LeaUe (Journal of Geogi-aph. Soc.
1446	voL ix. part i. p. 11). There is no
1447	reason to believe that the road was
1448	actually measured, but it was so fre-
1449	quently traversed that the distance
1450	came to be estimated very nearly at
1451	its true length.
1452	" Fifteen hundred furlongs (stades)
1453	are about equal to 173 English miles.
1454	""The real distance of Heliopolis from
1455	the sea, at the old Sebennytic luouth,
1456	is about 110 miles, or 100 in a direct
1457	line.— G. W.]
1458	' The site of Heliopolis is still
1459	marked by the massive walls that
p. 32
1460	10
1461	INTERIOR OF EGYPT.
1462	Book II.
1463	Egypt
1464	try,
1465	liills, whicli
1466	shuttino- it
1467	becomes narrow,
1468	has a direction
1469	^ in upon the one
1470	range upon the other. The former
1471	without a break, and stretches away to the sea called
1472	the Erythraean ; it contains the quarries ® whence the
1473	the Arabian range of
1474	from north to south,
1475	side, and the Libyan
1476	ridge
1477	runs on
1478	.surrounded it, and by a granite obelisk
1479	bearing the name of- Osirtasen I. of
1480	tlie 12th dynasty, dating about 3900
1481	years ago. It was one of two that
1482	stood before the entrance to the temple
1483	of the Sun, at the inner end of an
1484	avenue of sphinxes ; and the apex,
1485	like some of those at 'J'hebes, was once
1486	covered with bronze (doubtless gilt),
1487	as is shown by the stone having been
1488	cut to receive the metal casing, and
1489	by the testimony of Arab history.
1490	Tradition also speaks of tlie other
1491	obelisk of Heliopolis, and of the
1492	bronze taken from its apex. Pliny
1493	(3(), 8) supposes that Mitres, the first
1494	king who erected an obelisk, held his
1495	court at Heliopolis, and that those
1496	monuments were dedicated to the
1497	Sun ; but that depended upon what
1498	God the temple belonged to, the
1499	obelisks at Thebes being erected to
1500	Amun, and in other places to other
1501	deities. The name of Heliopolis was
1502	ei-n-re, " the abode of the Sun,"
1503	from which the Hebrew On or Aon
1504	cornipted into Aven (Ezek. xxx. 17)
1505	was taken, and which was translated
1506	Beth-shemesh, " the house of the Sun"
1507	(Jerem. xliii. 13). The Arabs called
1508	it Ain Shems, " fountain of the Sun,"
1509	from the spring there, which the cre-
1510	dulous Christians believed to have
1511	been salt until the Virgin's visit to
1512	Egypt. The Arabic name of the
1513	neighbouring village, Matareeh, was
1514	su]iposed to signify " fresh water,"
1515	and to refer to the fountain ; but this
1516	is an eiTor, as the masculine word
1517	Ma, " water," would require the name
1518	to be Ma-taree. (See M. Eg. W., vol.
1519	i. p. 295 ; and on the balsam of Helio-
1520	polis see my n. on ch. 107, B. iii.) In
1521	later times the artificial Amnis Tra-
1522	janus ran a short distance to the north-
1523	ward of Heliopolis ; and on that side of
1524	the city were lakes supplied with water
1525	from, the neighbouring canal. The ,
1526	large and lofty crude brick walls of
1527	Heliopolis enclosed an irregular area
1528	measuring 3750 feet \>y 2870, having
1529	the houses on the north side covering
1530	a space of 575,000 square feet, to the
1531	south of which stood the temple of the
1532	Sun. This occupied a large portion
1533	of a separate enclosure, or temerios, at
1534	one side of the town ; and a long
1535	avenue of sphinxes, described by
1536	Strabo, led to. the two obelisks before
1537	the temple (see jilan). ■ Some of the
1538	sphinxes may still be traced, as well
1539	as the ruins of the houses, Avhich,
1540	like those of Bubastis, stood on a
1541	higher level than the temenos, owing
1542	to their foundations having been
1543	raised from time to time, while the
1544	temple remained in its original site.
1545	in Strabo's time the houses were
1546	shown where Plato and Eudoxus lived
1547	while studying under the priests*of
1548	Heliopolis ; but the city, which had
1549	for ages been the seat of learning, lost
1550	its importance after the accession of
1551	the Ptolemies, and the schools of
1552	Alexandria took the place of the an-
1553	cient colleges of Heliopolis (see Strab.
1554	xvii.). The walls are in some places
1555	double, but throughout of great
1556	strength ; and here and there the po-
1557	sitions of the gates may still be
1558	traced. From one of these on the
1559	S.E. side a large road ran through the
1560	desert to the Red Sea, and a smaller
1561	one led across the Mokuttum hills
1562	(behind Cairo) by what is called the
1563	" petrified forest," and rejoined the
1564	valley of the Nile near the quarries of
1565	" the Trojan hill." A stone gateway-
1566	has lately been found at Heliopolis
1567	with tlie name of Thothmes III. — [G.
1568	W.]
1569	^ The quarries from which the
1570	stone for the casing of the pyramids
1571	was taken are in that part of the
p. 33
1572	Chap. 8.
1573	LIBYAN AND ARABIAN RANGES.
1574	11
1575	stone was cut for the pyramids of Memphis : and
1576	this is the point where it ceases its first direction,
1577	and bends awav in the manner above indicated.^ In
1578	its greatest length from east to west, it is, as I have
1579	been informed, a distance of two months' journey ;
1580	towards the extreme east its skirts produce frankin-
1581	cense. Such are the chief features of this range. On
1582	the Libyan side, the other ridge wdiereon the pyramids
1583	, stand, is rocky and covered with sand ; its direction is
1584	the same as that of the Arabian ridge in the first part
1585	of its course. Above HeliopoHs, then, there is no great
1586	breadth of territory for such a country as Egypt, but
1587	during four days' sail Egypt is narrow ; ^ the valley
1588	modern El-Mokuttum range of hills
1589	called by Strabo the " Trojan moun-
1590	tain " (TpatKov opos. xvii. p. 1147),
1591	and now Uebel ]\lasarah or Toora INIa-
1592	sarah, from the two villages below
1593	them on the Nile. Toora, though
1594	signifying in Ar. a " canal," is evi-
1595	dently the Troja of Strabo, which stood
1596	in this neighbourhood, and which he
1597	pretends was built by and named after
1598	the Trojan captives of Menelaus. But
1599	the probability is that some Egyptian
1600	name was converted by the Greeks into
1601	Troja, and by the Arabs into Toora ;
1602	and we may perhaj^s ascribe to it the
1603	same origin as the " T\'rian camp" at
1604	Memphis mentioned by Herodotus (see
1605	note * on ch. 112). The em] >loymeut of
1606	the stone in the pyramids, and the
1607	names of the early kings found there,
1608	show that these qiiarries were already
1609	used by the ancient Egyptians from
1610	the time of the 4th to the 18th dy-
1611	nasty (as well as after that period),
1612	and consequently during the Shep-
1613	herd occupation of Memphis. On
1614	one tablet was the representation of a
1615	large stone on a sledge drawn by oxen,
1616	having the name of Amosis (Ames),
1617	the first king of the 18th dynasty :
1618	and on others the date of the 42nd
1619	year of Amun-m-he (3rd of the 12th
1620	dynasty) and the names of later
1621	kings. The quarries are still worked
1622	by the modern Egyptians, and this
1623	even-grained magnesiau limestone is
1624	used for floors of rooms and for other
1625	building purjioses. — [G. W.]
1626	^ That is, towards the Erythra\an
1627	Sea, or Arabian Gulf. [The bend of
1628	the mountain is really where Cairo
1629	now stands, whence it runs towards
1630	the Red Sea. The notion of Hero-
1631	dotus respecting its extent to the E.
1632	was vague, and he evidently con-
1633	founds, or connects, it with the
1634	peninsula of Arabia, the country of
1635	incense ; though he speaks of the
1636	moimtaiu-range on the E. of the Nile
1637	extending southwards along the Red
1638	Sea. Its breadth from the Nile to
1639	the Red Sea direct is 82 miles in lat.
1640	30°, increasing to 175 in lat. 24°. —
1641	G. W.J
1642	' That is, from Heliopolis south-
1643	ward ; and he says it becomes broader
1644	again, beyond that point. His 200
1645	stadia are about 22J to 23 miles. The
1646	whole breadth of the valley from the
1647	Eastern to the Western hills is only
1648	from 12 to 15 m. This must have ap-
1649	peared a very great change after leav-
1650	ing the spacious Delta, a level plain,
1651	without any mountains being seen
1652	to the E. or W. The four days, reck-
1653	oning, as he does, 540 stadia to a day,
1654	would be about 245 Eng. m., or to
1655	about the vicinity of Sioot; but it
1656	cannot be the spot, where he thinks
1657	the valley " becomes broader," ac-
p. 34
1658	12
1659	EGYPT ONCE A GULF OF THE SEA.
1660	Book IT.
1661	between tlic two ranges is a level plain, and seemed
1662	to me to be, at the narrowest point, not more tlian
1663	two hiuidred furlongs across from the Arabian to the
1664	Libyan hills. Above this point Egypt again widens.^
1665	9. From Heliopolis to Thebes is nine days' sail up
1666	the river ; the distance is eighty-one schoenes, or 4860
1667	furlongs.^ If we now put together the several measure-
1668	ments of the country we shall find that the distance
1669	along shore is, as I stated above, 3600 furlongs, and
1670	the distance from the sea inland to Thebes 6120 fur-
1671	longs. Further, it is a distance of eighteen hundred
1672	furlongs from Thebes to the place called Elephantine.
1673	10. The greater portion of the country above de-
1674	scribed seemed to me to be, as the priests declared, a
1675	tract gained by the inhabitants. For the whole region
1676	above Memphis, lying between the two ranges of hills
1677	that have been spoken of, appeared evidently to have
1678	formed at one time a gulf of the sea.^ It resembles (to
1679	compare small things with great) the parts about Ilium
1680	and Teuthrania, EjDhesus, and the j)lain of the Mceander.^
1681	cording to his calculation of nine days
1682	to Thebes, which would require it to
1683	be less than half-way, or about Gebel-
1684	aboofaydeh, and this would agree still
1685	less with his description of the in-
1686	creasing breadth of the valley, which
1687	is there only 7 miles from the Eastern
1688	to the Western hills.— [G. W.j
1689	^ Compare the descrijjtion of Scylax
1690	(Pcripl. p. 103), who says that Egypt
1691	is shaped like a douhle-l^eaded
1692	battle-axe (TrfXtKvs or hipermis), the
1693	neck which joins the two heads
1694	being in the vicinitj^ of Memphis.
1695	^ The nine days' sail, which Hero-
1696	dotus reckons at 4S60 stadia, would
1697	give about 552 Eng. miles ; but the
1698	distance is only about 421, even follow-
1699	ing the course of the river. From the
1700	sea to Thebes he reckons G120 stadia,
1701	at the least computation — about 700
1702	miles — but the distance is by modern
1703	measurement only 5G6 miles ; and his
1704	distance of 1800 stadia from Thebes
1705	to Elephantine, at least 206 miles, ex-
1706	ceeds the truth by above 700 stadia,
1707	being really 124 miles. — [G. W.]
1708	^ See above, notes on ch. 5. Hero-
1709	dotus says, most of the country is
1710	" acquired by the Egyptians," and " a
1711	gift of the river ;" but as the same de-
1712	posit continues throughout the whole
1713	valley, these remarks can oul}' apjily
1714	to the oriyinul formation of the land ;
1715	the soil since the time that Pjgypt
1716	was first inhabited being only deejjer,
1717	and more extended E. and W. towards
1718	the mountains ; and whatever form
1719	the valley may have had in the earlj"^
1720	ages of the world, it could not have
1721	been a gulf of the sea since P^gypt
1722	was inhabited. — [G. W.]
1723	* In some of these jilaces the gain
1724	of the land upon the sea has been very
1725	great. This is particularly the case at
1726	the mouth of the Slwander, where the
1727	alluvial ]ilain has advanced in tlie
1728	historic times a distance of 12 or 13
p. 35
1729	Chap. 9, 10.
1730	EFFECTS OF RIVEE-DEPOSITS.
1731	13
1732	In all these regions the land has been formed by rivers,
1733	whereof the greatest is not to compare for size with
1734	any one of the five mouths of the Nile.^ I could men-
1735	tion other rivers also, far inferior to the Nile in magni-
1736	tude, that have effected very great changes. Among
1737	these not the least is the Acheloils, which, after passing
1738	through Acarnania, empties itself into the sea opposite
1739	the islands called Echinades,^ and has already joined
1740	one half of them to the continent.^
1741	miles. (See note to Book i. cli. 142.)
1742	At Ephesiis tliere is now a plain of
1743	three miles between the temple and
1744	the sea (Leake's Asia Minor, p. 259,
1745	note), which has been entirely created
1746	since the days of Herodotus. At the
1747	mouths of the Scamander and the
1748	Ca'icus (which drained Teuthrania,
1749	Strab. xiii. p. 883, Plin. H. N. v. 30),
1750	the advance of the land, though less,
1751	is still very perceptible.
1752	* This signifies the natural branches
1753	of the Nile ; and when seven are reck-
1754	oned, they include the two artificial
1755	ones, the Bolbitine and Bucolic or
1756	Phatmetic, which .Herodotus says
1757	were the work of man.
1758	ch. 17.— [G. W.]
1759	See note ' on
1760	' These islands, which still bear the
1761	same name among the educatedGreeks,
1762	consist of two clusters, linked together
1763	by the barren and rugged Fetald. The
1764	northern cluster contains 15 or 16
1765	islands, the principal of which is
1766	Dliragondra. The southern contains
1767	only five or six : the most important
1768	are Oxid, Makri, and Vromona. They
1769	are British dependencies, being in-
1770	cluded in the Ionian islands. Except
1771	Oxid, they all lie north of the pre-
1772	sent mouth of the Acheloiis {Aspro).
1773	See Leake's Northern Greece, vol. iii.
1774	pp. 30-1.
1775	^ That the Acheloiis in ancient
1776	times formed fresh land at its mouth
1777	with very great rapidity is certain,
1778	Map of the country about the mouth of the River Acheloiis, chiefly after Ivicpcrt.
1779	N.B. The dark lines mark the uneient coast ami islands.
p. 36
1780	14
1781	THE TWO PAKALLEL GULFS.
1782	Book II,
1783	11. In Arabia, not far from Egypt, there is a long
1784	and narrow gulf running inland from the sea called
1785	the Erythraean,^ of which I will here set down the di-
1786	mensions. Starting from its innermost recess, and using
1787	a row-boat, you take forty days to reach the open main,
1788	while you may cross the gulf at its widest part in the
1789	space of half a day. In this sea there is an ebb and
1790	flow of the tide every day.^ My opinion is, that Egypt
1791	was formerly very much such a gulf as this — One gulf
1792	penetrated from the sea that washes Egypt on the
1793	north,^ and extended itself towards Ethiopia ; another
1794	entered from the southern ocean, and stretched towards
1795	Syria; the two gulfs ran into the land so as almost
1796	to meet each other, and left between them only a very
1797	narrow tract of country. Now if the Nile should
1798	choose to divert his waters from their present bed into
1799	from the testimony of various writers
1800	besides Herodotus. Thucj^dides (ii.
1801	102), Scylax (Peripl. p. 31), and
1802	Strabo (i. p. 87), all speak in equally
1803	strong terms on the subject. Thucy-
1804	dides even conjectures that in a short
1805	space of time all the Echinades would
1806	become portions of the continent.
1807	This prediction has failed ; and at
1808	])resent, owing probably to the i)ro-
1809	jection of the coast and the sweep of
1810	the current round it, the advance of
1811	the land is very slow and gradual.
1812	(Leake, iii. p. 570.) So far as appears,
1813	no island has been added to the shore
1814	since the time of Strabo. Col. Leake
1815	indeed says that he could only find
1816	two heights in this vicinity which
1817	seemed to him to have once been
1818	islands, viz., the peninsula of Eurt-
1819	zolari (Strabo's Artemita), and a small
1820	hill opposite Petald ; but it may be
1821	questioned whether the representation
1822	of Kiepert (Blatt. xiii.) does not give
1823	a truer idea of the actual growth 'of
1824	the land.
1825	^ The Greeks generally did not give
1826	the name Erythraean, or Eed Sea, to the
1827	Arabian Gulf, but to all that part of the
1828	Indian Ocean reaching from the Persian
1829	Ciulf to India (as in ii. 102 ; and iv.
1830	39). It was also applied to the Persian
1831	Gulf (i. 1, 180, 18V)), and Herodotus
1832	sometimes gives it to the Arabian
1833	Gulf, and even the Avestem branch
1834	between Mount Sinai and Egj^pt (ii.
1835	158). Even Taprobane' (now Ceylon)
1836	was placed in the Erythraean Sea,
1837	towards the Golden Chersonesus.
1838	Agatharcides is careful in distin-
1839	guishing tlie "Eed Sea" from the
1840	Arabian Gulf. Herodotus reckons
1841	the length of this gulf at 40 days'
1842	passage in a rowing boat, and its
1843	breadth at half a day in the broad-
1844	est part ; but in this last he probably
1845	had in view the upper part of the
1846	Suez Gulf. The real length of the
1847	Pied Sea, or Arabian Gulf, from the
1848	straits of Bab-el-Mandeb to Suez, is
1849	1400 Eng. m., and its greatest breadth,
1850	in lat.l8°, is 175 ; and the broadest
1851	part of the Suez Gulf is 25 miles.
1852	— [G. W.]
1853	' Herodotus is perfectly right in
1854	speaking of the tide in this gulf. At
1855	Suez it is from 5 to 6 feet, but much
1856	less to the southward. — [G. W.]
1857	^ The Mediterranean, called by the
1858	Arabs " the White Sea " as well as
1859	"the North Sea."— [G. W.]
p. 37
1860	Chap. 11, 12.
1861	EGYPT ALLUVIAL.
1862	15
1863	this Arabian gulf, what is there to hinder it from being
1864	filled up by the stream within, at the utmost, twenty-
1865	thousand years ? For my part, I think it would be
1866	filled in half the time. How then should not a gulf,
1867	even of much greater size, have been filled up in the
1868	ages that passed before I w^as born, by a river that is at
1869	once so large and so given to working changes ?
1870	12. Thus I give credit to those from whom I received
1871	this account of Egypt, and am myself, moreover, strongly
1872	of the same opinion, since I remarked that the country
1873	projects into the sea further than the neighbouring
1874	shores, and I observed that there were shells upon the
1875	hills,^ and that salt exuded from the soil to such an
1876	extent as even to injure the pyramids; and I noticed
1877	also that there is but a single hill in all Egypt where
1878	sand is found,* namely, the hill above Memphis ; and
1879	further, I found the country to bear no resemblance
1880	either to its border-land Arabia, or to Libya ^ — nay, nor
1881	^ The shells imbedded in rocks
1882	have led to much absurd reasoning
1883	till a very late time ; and the accuracy
1884	of Strabo's judgment is the more sur-
1885	prising since his mode of accounting
1886	for the upheavings and subsidings of
1887	the land, and the retirement and en-
1888	croachments of the sea, as well as the
1889	gradual changes always going on from
1890	subterraneous agencies, accord with
1891	our most recent discoveries. "The
1892	reason," he says, " that one is raised
1893	and the other subsides, or that the sea
1894	inundates some places and recedes
1895	from others, is not from some being
1896	lower and others higher, but because
1897	the same ground is raised or de-
1898	pressed . . . The cause must there-
1899	fore be ascribed either to the ground
1900	under the sea, or to that inundated
1901	by it, but rather to that below it. . . .
1902	and we ought to draw our conclusions
1903	from things that are evident, and in
1904	some degree of daily occurrence, as
1905	deluges, earthquakes, and (volcanic)
1906	eruptions, and sudden risings of the
1907	land under the sea . . . and not only
1908	islands but continents are raised up.
1909	and large and small tracts subside,
1910	some being swallowed up by earth-
1911	quakes." (Strabo, i. p. 74 et seqq.)
1912	On Volcanos, see Ly ell's Princ. of Geol.
1913	vol. i. c. 2 to 5.— [G. W.]
1914	^ The only mountain where sand
1915	abounds is certainly the African range,
1916	and though there are some lofty drifts
1917	in one place on the opposite side, just
1918	below the modern Suez road, the east-
1919	ern part of the valley of the Nile is
1920	generally free from it. It does not,
1921	however, encroach on the W. to the
1922	extent that some have imagined ; and
1923	if downs of sand have been raised
1924	here and there along the edge of the
1925	cultivated land, the general encroach-
1926	ment is greatly in favour of the allu-
1927	vial deposit. In Ethiopia the sand
1928	has invaded the W. bank, but this is
1929	owing to the fall in the level of the
1930	Nile, mentioned in n. ', ch. iii. and
1931	App. CH. iv. 4.— G. W.]
1932	* It is perfectly true that neither in
1933	soil nor climate is Egypt like any other
1934	country. The soil is, as Herodotus
1935	says, " black and crumbly." The de-
1936	posit of the Nile, when left on a I'ock
p. 38
1937	16
1938	VARIATION IN THE RISE OF THE NILE.
1939	Book II.
1940	even to Syria, which forms the seaboard of Arabia ;
1941	but whereas the soil of Libya is, we know, sandy and
1942	of a reddish hue, and that of Arabia and Syria inchnes
1943	to stone and clay, Egypt has a soil that is black and
1944	crumbly, as being alluvial and formed of the deposits
1945	brought down by the river from Ethiopia.
1946	13. One fact which 1 learnt of the priests is to me a
1947	strong evidence of the origin of the country. They
1948	said that when Mceris was king, the Nile overflowed all
1949	Egypt below Memphis, as soon as it rose so little as
1950	eight cubits. Now Moeris had not been dead 900 years
1951	at the time when I heard this of the priests ; ^ yet at
1952	the present day, unless the river rise sixteen, or, at the
1953	very least, fifteen cubits, it does not overflow the lands.
1954	It seems to me, therefore, that if the land goes on
1955	and dried by the sun, resembles pot-
1956	tery in its appearance and by its frac-
1957	ture, from the silica it contains ; but
1958	as long as it retains its moisture it has
1959	the appearance of clay, from its slimy
1960	and tenacious quality. It varies ac-
1961	cording to circumstances, sometimes
1962	being mixed with sand, but it is gene-
1963	rally of a black colour, and Egjqit is
1964	said to have been called hence "black,"
1965	from the pjrevailing character of its
1966	soil. The analysis given by Eegnault
1967	in the Description de I'Egypte is —
1968	II*
1969	9-
1970	6-
1971	4-
1972	4-
1973	IS-
1974	48-
1975	100
1976	water.
1977	carbon.
1978	oxide of iron.
1979	silica.
1980	carbonate of niagiiBsia.
1981	carbonate of lime.
1982	alumen.
1983	That the soil of Libya is red and
1984	sandy is true, and the abundance of
1985	iron, especially at the Little Oasis,
1986	makes it in some parts like that of
1987	Devonshire. — [Gr. W.]
1988	® This would make the date of Mce-
1989	ris about 1355 b.c. ; but it neither
1990	agrees with the age of Amun-ni-he
1991	III. of the Labyrinth, nor of Thoth-
1992	mes III., whom some have supposed
1993	to be Moeris, nor of IMairc, or Papi
1994	(Apappus) of the (3th dynasty. The
1995	Moeris, however, from whom these
1996	dates are calculated, appears to have
1997	been Meno2:)hres, whose ajra was so
1998	remarkable, and was fixed as the
1999	Sothic period, B.C. 1322, which hap-
2000	pened about 900 years before Hero-
2001	dotus' visit, only falling short of that
2002	sum by 33 years. It is reasonable to
2003	suppose that by Moeris he would refer
2004	to that king who was so remarkable for
2005	his attention to the levels of the Nile,
2006	shown by his making the lake called
2007	after him ; and who, from the records
2008	at Semneh, and from his name being
2009	again found in the Labyrinth (by
2010	Dr. Lepsius), is shown to have been
2011	Amun-m-lie III. ; but if his date is
2012	to be taken from Herodotus, it will
2013	not accord with this king of the 12th
2014	d^masty, w'ho lived about 1500 years
2015	before the historian ; and the Egyp-
2016	tians were not in the habit of dimi-
2017	nishing antiquity, nor of curtailing
2018	dates. Herodotus perhaps confounded
2019	two or more kings, to whom the name
2020	of Mceris had been given by the
2021	Greeks ; as the statue of Amunoiili,
2022	and a palace and a tomb of two Re-
2023	meses, were ascribed to Memnon.
2024	See note ^ on ch. 100, note "^ on ch. 142,
2025	and note' on ch. 148.— [G. W.]
p. 39
2026	Chap. 13, 14. INCREASING ELEVATION OF THE LAND.
2027	17
2028	rising and growing at this rate, the Egyptians who
2029	dwell helow lake Moeris, in the Delta (as it is called)
2030	and elsewhere, will one day, by the stoppage of the
2031	inundations, suffer permanently the fate which they told
2032	me they expected would some time or other befall the
2033	Greeks. On hearing that the whole land of Greece is
2034	watered by rain from heaven, and not, like their own,
2035	inundated by rivers, they observed — " Some day the
2036	Greeks will be disappointed of their grand hope, and
2037	then they will be wretchedly hungry ;" which was as
2038	much as to say, " If God shall some day see fit not to
2039	grant the Greeks rain, but shall afflict them with a long
2040	drought, the Greeks will be swept away by a famine,
2041	since they have nothing to rely on but rain from Jove,
2042	and have no other I'esource for water." ^
2043	14. And certes, in thus speaking of the Greeks the
2044	Egyptians say nothing but what is true. But now
2045	let me tell the Egyptians how the case stands with
2046	themselves. If, as I said before, the country below
2047	Memphis,'' which is the land that is always rising,
2048	continues to increase in height at the rate at which
2049	it has risen in times gone by, how will it be possible
2050	for the inhabitants of that region to avoid hunger,
2051	when they will certainly have no rain,^ and the river
2052	'' This resembles the common re-
2053	mark of the Egyptians at the present
2054	day regarding those conntries which
2055	dejiend for water on rain. — [G. W.]
2056	^ This with the Delta Herodotns
2057	seems to consider the only part raised
2058	by the amiual deposit (^avTT) yap itm
2059	1) av^nvojjLevq), which is of course erro-
2060	neous, as the alluviiun is left through-
2061	out the vallev from Abyssinia to the
2062	sea.— [G. W"]
2063	" Poinponius Mela calls Egypt
2064	" terra cxpers imbrium," and Proclus
2065	says if showers fell in Lower Egypt
2066	they were confined to that district,
2067	and heavy rain was a prodigy in the
2068	Thebaid. Herodotus indeed affirms (iii.
2069	10) that rain at 'iliebes portended some
2070	great calamity, and the conquest of
2071	VOL. ir.
2072	Egypt by the Persians was thought
2073	to have been foretold by this unusual
2074	]ihenomenon at that place. In LTpper
2075	Egypt showers only occur about five
2076	or six times in the year, but every
2077	fifteen or twenty years heavy rain
2078	fiills there, which will account for the
2079	dee]! ravines cut in the valleys of the
2080	Theban hills, about the Tombs of tlie
2081	Kings ; in Lower Egypt rain is more
2082	frequent ; and in Alexandria it is as
2083	abundant in winter as in the south of
2084	Europe. These ravines, and the pre-
2085	cautions taken to protect the roofs of
2086	the temples at Thebes against rain,
2087	show that it fell there of old as now ;
2088	but a continuation of heavy rain in
2089	Upper Egypt, or even at Cairo, for
2090	two or three days would be considered
2091	c
p. 40
2092	18
2093	ADVANTAGES OF THE INUNDATION.
2094	Book II.
2095	will not be able to overflow their corn-lands ? At
2096	present, it must be confessed, tliey obtain the fruits of
2097	the field with less trouble than any other people in the
2098	world, the rest of the Egyptians included, since they have
2099	no need to break up the ground with the plough, nor to
2100	use the hoe, nor to do any of the work which the rest
2101	of mankind find necessary if they are to get a crop ;^
2102	a great wonder, and would cause many
2103	houses to fall down, as in 1823. (Cp.
2104	Exod. ix. 18, where the hailstorm is
2105	not said to have been the only one,
2106	but such as was unlil^e any before it in
2107	Egypt.) The Eastern desert, between
2108	the Nile and the Eed Sea, where the
2109	mountains are higher, is frequently
2110	visited by heavy rain and thunder-
2111	storms in tine winter, though the cli-
2112	mate is drier than the valley of the
2113	Nile ; and every four or five years
2114	the torrents run down to the Eed Sea
2115	on one side and to the Nile on the
2116	other. In less than a month's time
2117	after this the beds of those torrents
2118	are covered with green herbs and nu-
2119	merous small flowers, and the Arabs
2120	take their flocks to graze there till
2121	the Khamseen winds and the hot sun
2122	of May have dried them up, and no-
2123	thing remains except a few acacia-
2124	trees and the usual hardy shrubs of
2125	those arid districts. There are scarcely
2126	any springs in the valley of the Nile,
2127	and the few found there are jirobably
2128	caused by the filtration of the Nile-
2129	water through the soil. — [G. W.]
2130	' That the labour for growing corn
2131	was less in Egypt than in other
2132	countries is certainly true ; and in
2133	the low lands of the Delta, to which
2134	Herodotus here alludes, as well as
2135	in the hollows away from the river,
2136	near the edge of the desert, where
2137	the level of the land is the lowest,
2138	they probably dispensed with the
2139	plough, as at the present day, and
2140	simply dragged the mud with bushes
2141	aCter the seed had been thrown upon
2142	it, driving in a number of sheep.
2143	goats, or pigs, to tread in the grain ;
2144	but for other crops considerable la-
2145	bour was required in raising water
2146	to irrigate the land ; and during the
2147	summer and autumn few soils re-
2148	quire more attention than in the dry
2149	climate of Egypt. Though the fields
2150	were occasionally sown, as now, by
2151	casting the seed into the mud on the
p. 41
2152	Chap. 14.
2153	EGYPTIAN FARMING.
2154	19
2155	but the husbandman waits till the river has of its own
2156	accord spread itself over the fields and withdrawn
2157	retiring of the waters, this was not I sented in the agricultural scenes,
2158	the universal custom among the Egyp- both in Upper Egypt and on the
2159	tians, and the plough is always repre- 1
2160	monuments about Memphis. The
2161	C^^r^
2162	N
p. 42
2163	20
2164	TREADING IX THE GRAIN
2165	Book II.
2166	again to its bed, and then sows liis plot of ground, and
2167	after sowing turns liis swine into it — the swine tread
2168	in the corn ^ — after which he has only to await the har-
2169	furrows were not deep ; and Diodonis
2170	and Golumella say that they were
2171	contented to " trace slight furrows
2172	with a liglit plough on the surface of
2173	the land," a mode of tillage resem-
2174	bling the scarificatio of the Romans,
2175	continued in Egypt at the present
2176	day. After the ])lough followed the
2177	hoe to break the clods ; and the land
2178	having been prepared, the sower was
2179	sent in, who threw the seed broadcast
2180	over the field. The land was all open,
2181	having no hedge-rows, but merely
2182	simple land -marks to define the
2183	boundaries of a farm or field, as with
2184	the Jews (Deut. xix. 14), and some-
2185	times an estate was separated from
2186	its neighbour by a large canal, from
2187	which smaller channels distributed the
2188	water in proper directions through the
2189	fields. When the Nile was low, the
2190	water was raised by the pole and
2191	bucket, the shadoof of modern Egypt,
2192	and by other means ; and this at-
2193	tention to artificial irrigation, instead
2194	of depending for it on rain, is alluded
2195	to in Deuteronomy xi. 10. There is
2196	one instance, and one only, of men
2197	drawing the plough in Egypt. The
2198	painting, which is from a tomb at
2199	Thebes, is preserved in the Louvre.
2200	Two men are at tlie end of the pole,
2201	and two others pull a rope attached
2202	ti> the base where tlic handle, pole, and
2203	share unite ; another holds the plough
2204	as usual, and the rest of the scene is like
2205	that in otlier agricultural scenes, with
2206	the hoeing, sowing broadcast, and the
2207	harvest operations. — [G. W.J
2208	^ Plutarch, iElian ( Nat." Animal.
2209	X. 16, on the authority of Eudoxus),
2210	and Pliny, mention this custom of
2211	treading in the gram " with pigs"
2212	in Egypt ; but no instance occurs of
2213	it in the tombs, though goats are
2214	sometimes so represented in the jiaint-
2215	ings. It is indeed more probable that
2216	pigs were turned in upon the land to
p. 43
2217	Chap. 14.
2218	WITH TIGS.
2219	21
2220	eat up the weeds and roots ; and a
2221	painting at Thebes, where pigs are
2222	introduced with water-plants, seems
2223	to point to this fact ; their habits
2224	were ill suited to benefit the farmer
2225	after the seed had been sown ; and to
2226	muzzle each pig, when goats or other
2227	animals abounded, would have been
2228	lost labour. In the district of Gower,
2229	in South Wales, corn is trodden in
2230	by sheep to this day. — [G. W.]
p. 44
2231	22
2232	NOTIONS OF THE lONIANS
2233	Book II.
2234	vest. The s^xdne serve liim also to thrash the grain,^
2235	which is then carried to the garner.
2236	15. If then we choose to adopt the views of the
2237	^ The paintings show that oxen
2238	were commonly used to tread out the
2239	grain from the ear at harvest-time,
2240	and occasionally, though rarely, asses
2241	were so employed ; but pigs not being
2242	sufSciently heavy for the purpose, are'
2243	not likely to have been substituted
2244	for oxen. This process was performed,
2245	as it is still in Italy, Spain, and other
2246	coun tries, by driving the oxen (horses
2247	or mules) over the corn strewed upon
2248	the ground, or iipon a paved area near
2249	the field ; and the Jews, who also
2250	adopted it, were forbidden to muzzle
2251	the ox when treading out the corn
2252	(Deut. XXV. 4). In later times the
2253	Jews appear also to have used
2254	" threshing instruments,'' and the
2255	word dus, " treading," in the sentence
2256	"Oman was threshing wheat" (1
2257	Chron. xxi. 20, 23), may merely have
2258	been retained from the earlier custom
2259	of triturating by oxen. Another more
2260	distinct mention of a "new sharp
2261	threshing instrument having teeth "
2262	is found in Isaiah (xli, 15), which
2263	calls to mind the Isoreg, or corn-drag,
2264	of modern Egypt, a name closely re-
2265	sembling the Hebrew Moreg, applied
2266	to the threshing instrimients of Oman
2267	(as in Isaiah), and the oxen he offered
2268	to David were doubtless those that
2269	had been yoked h> it. The modern
p. 45
2270	Chap. 15.
2271	CONCERNING EGYPT.
2272	23
2273	lonians * concerning Egypt, we must come to the con-
2274	clusion that the Egyptians had formerly no country at
2275	all. For the lonians say that nothing is really Egypt^
2276	Egyptian N6re(j is drawn by two
2277	oxen, and consists of a wooden frame,
2278	with three axles, on which are lixed
2279	circular iron plates, the first and last
2280	having each four, the centre one three
2281	plates ; and these not only force out
2282	the grain but chop the straw as the
2283	machine is dragged over it. It ap-
2284	pears to be very similar to the trihu-
2285	lum of the Eomans mentioned by
2286	Varro (de Ee rustica, i. 52), who de-
2287	scribes it as " a frame made rough by
2288	stones, or pieces of iron, on which the
2289	driver or a weight was placed, and
2290	this being drawn by beasts yoked to
2291	it pressed out the grain." The " \Ao~
2292	stemum Pcenicum " was doubtless in-
2293	troduced into Spain by the Phoe-
2294	nicians.— [G. W.J
2295	■* Under the general expression of
2296	" lonians" in' this passage, Herodotus
2297	has been thought to mean principally,
2298	if not solelv, Hecata?us. (Miiller ad
2299	Hecat. Fragm. Fr. 295 and 296.)
2300	Col. Mure shows satisfactorily (Lite-
2301	rature of Greece, vol. iv. p. 148, note ')
2302	that this is not the case, since the per-
2303	sons here spoken of divided the world
2304	into three parts (infra, ch. 16), He-
2305	catanis into two. (See the map, note
2306	to Book iv. ch. 36.) Perhaps the al-
2307	lusion is to Anaximander, who as a
2308	geographer had preceded Hecata^us.
2309	{Strab. i. p. 10; Agathemer. i. 1.)
2310	* There is no appearance of the
2311	name " Egypt" on the ancient monu-
2312	ments, where the country is called
2313	" Chemi," represented in hierogl}"i)hics
2314	by the tail of a crocodile. Chemi, " the
2315	black land," " the land of Ham," or of
2316	Khem (the Egyptian God Pan, or the
2317	Generative principle of Nature) is said
2318	by Plutarch to ha\-e been so called from
2319	the "blackness of the soil." Khem is
2320	singularly like the Greek x^fJ-ai. Ham
2321	(Kham), the Hebrew name of the
2322	patriarch, signifies also " soot," and
2323	is like the Arabic hem, hami, " hot ;"
2324	and the Hebrew Jiom (or khom),
2325	signifying brown (or black), as in
2326	Gen. XXX. 32, 40, is also " burnt
2327	up." ^Egyptus was in old times
2328	tlie name of the Nile, which was
2329	so called by Homer (Odys. iv. 477 ;
2330	xiv. 257) ; and Strabo (xvii. p. 691)
2331	says the same was the opinion of
2332	Nearchus. Manetho pretends that
2333	the country received the name from
2334	Jilgyptus, a surname of King Sethos
2335	(or Sethi). Aristotle thinks that
2336	" J^]gypt was fonnerly called Thebes,"
2337	and Herodotus states, in opposition to
2338	the opinion of the " lonians," that
2339	" Thebes (L e. the Thebaid) had of
2340	old the name of Egypt." And if this
2341	is not confirmed by the monuments,
2342	the word "Egypt" was at all events
2343	connected with Coptos, a city of the
2344	Thebaid. From Kebt, Koft, or Coptos
2345	the modern inhabitants have been
2346	called Copts : its ancient name in
2347	hieroglyphics was Kebt-hor ; and Mr.
2348	Poole is evidently right in sxipposing
2349	this to be the same as the Biblical
2350	Cai^htor. He thinks the name to be
2351	composed of A?a, " land," and Tinrros ;
2352	and to be traced in the Ai-Caphtor,
2353	" land (or coast) of Caphtor,'' in Jere-
2354	miah (xlvii. 4). The word Coptitic
2355	is found in a Gnostic papyrus, sup-
2356	posed to be of the second century (see
2357	note ^ on ch. 83). Egypt is said to have
2358	bfeen called originally Aetia, and the
2359	Nile Aetos and Siris. Upper Egypt, or
2360	the Thebaid, has even been confounded
2361	with, and called, Etliiopia : jierliaps
2362	too by Pliny (vi. 35 ; see note ®
2363	on ch. 110): Kahum (iii. 9) calls
2364	Ethiopia and Egypt the strength of
2365	No (Thebes); and Strabo says (i. p.
2366	57) that Menelaus' journey to Ethiopia
2367	reall}- meant to Thebes. The modern
2368	name Mufsr or Mis/- is the same as
2369	the Biblical Mizraim, i. e. " the two
2370	Misrs " applied to Egypt, which cor-
2371	responds to " the two regions" of the
2372	I sculptures ; but the word Misr does
2373	not occur on the monuments. Mr.
2374	Poole notices the meaning of the
2375	Arabic Misr, " red mud," and the
2376	name Eahab, "the proud," given to
2377	Egypt in the Bible, (^f Caphtor, see
2378	Deut. ii. 23 ; Amos ix. 7. See note*
2379	on ch. 106.— [G. W.]
p. 46
2380	24 EEFUTATION OF THE IONL\.NS. Book II.
2381	but the Delta, wliicli extends along shore from the
2382	Watch-tower of Perseus,® as it is called, to the Pelusiac
2383	Salt-pans,^ a distance of forty schoines, and stretches
2384	inland as far as the city of Cercasorus,*^ where the Nile
2385	divides into the two streams which reach the sea at
2386	Pelusium and Canobus respectively. The rest of what
2387	is accounted Egypt belongs, they say, either to Arabia
2388	or Libya. But the Delta, as the Egyptians affirm, and
2389	as I myself am j^ersuaded, is formed of the deposits of
2390	the river, and has only recently, if I may use the ex-
2391	pression, come to light. If then they had formerly no
2392	territory at all, how came they to be so extravagant as
2393	to fancy themselves the most ancient race in the world ?
2394	Surely there was no need of their making the experi-
2395	ment with the children to see what language they
2396	would first speak. But in truth I do not believe that
2397	the Egyptians came into being at the same time with
2398	the Delta, as the lonians call it ; I think they have
2399	always existed ever since the human race began ; as
2400	the land went on increasing, part of the population
2401	came down into the new country, part remained in
2402	their old settlements. In ancient times the Thebai's
2403	bore the name of Egypt, a district of which the entire
2404	circumference is but 6120 furlongs.
2405	" This tower stood to the AV. of the
2406	Cauopic mouth ; aud, as Eennell sup-
2407	poses, on the point of Aboukir, not, as
2408	Strabo thinks, on a sandy point at the
2409	Bulbitine mouth. The Canopic "was
2410	by some called the Heracleotic mouth,
2411	from the tity of Hercules (see n.' ch.
2412	113). The name Canopus, written
2413	more correctly by Herodotus Kdvco^os,
2414	said to signify ^^pvaeov i'dafjios, has
2415	been derived from kahi noub, " golden
2416	land." The term " Canopic," api^lied
2417	to sei>ulchral vases with a human
2418	head, is quite arbitrary. — [Gr, AV.]
2419	^ The Greek, like the modern, name
2420	of Pelusium, is thought to have been
2421	derived from the mud that surrounded
2422	it, TTyXof in Greek, and Teen in Arabic,
2423	signifying " mud." It is now called
2424	Teeneh. It is, however, very pro-
2425	bably taken from the old Egyptian
2426	name, and not Greek. Larcher con-
2427	siders the rapixfiai to be called from
2428	the embalmed mummies preserved
2429	there, but the name evidently applies
2430	to the salt-pans, as in ch. 113, where
2431	Herodotus mentions others near the
2432	Canopic mouth. — [G. W.] Lepsius
2433	suggests that Pelusium means " Phi-
2434	listine-town" (Chronologic der ^Egyp-
2435	ter, vol. i. p. 341), and regards it as so
2436	called because it was the last town
2437	held by the Hyksos, whom he believes
2438	to have been Philistines, before their
2439	final exjailsiou from Egypt.
2440	" Or Cercasorum. It is impossible
2441	to sav which form Hcrt^dotus intended.
p. 47
2442	Chap. 16, 17. TRUE BOUNDARY-LINE OF ASIA.
2443	25
2444	IG. If then my judgment on these matters be right,
2445	the loiiians are mistaken in what they say of Egypt.
2446	If, on the contrary, it is they who are right, then I
2447	undertake to show that neither the lonians nor any
2448	of the other Greeks know how to count. For they all
2449	say that the earth is divided into three parts, Europe,
2450	Asia, and Libya, whereas they ought to add a fourth
2451	part, the Delta of Egypt, since they do not include it
2452	either in Asia or Libya.^ For is it not their theory
2453	that the Nile separates Asia from Libya ? As the Nile
2454	therefore splits in two at the apex of the Delta, the
2455	Delta itself must be a separate country, not contained
2456	in either Asia or Libya.
2457	17. Here I take my leave of the opinions of the
2458	lonians, and proceed to deliver my own sentiments on
2459	these subjects. I consider Egypt to be the whole coun-
2460	try inhabited by the Egyptians, just as Cilicia is the
2461	tract occupied by the Cilicians, and Assyria that j)os-
2462	sessed by the Assyrians. And I regard the only proj^er
2463	boundary-line between Libya and Asia to be that wliich
2464	is marked out by the Egyptian frontier. For if we
2465	take the boundary-line commonly received by the
2466	^ Though Egypt really belongs to
2467	the continent of Africa, the inhabitants
2468	were certainly of Asiatic origin ; and
2469	the whole of the valley of the Nile has
2470	been peopled by the primeval ioinji-
2471	gration of a Caucasian race. This
2472	seems to be indicated also by the Bible
2473	history, where the grandsons of Noah
2474	are made the inhaliitants of Etliiopia,
2475	Egypt, Libya, and Canaan ; and Juba,
2476	according to I'liny, affirms with reason
2477	that the people of the banks of the Nile
2478	from Syene to Meroe, were not Ethio-
2479	pians (blacks) but Arabs. Till a later
2480	time half Egyj^t was ascribed to Africa,
2481	" which extended to the sources of the
2482	Nile" (Strabo, ii. p. 170), and "the
2483	Tanais and Nile weie the limits of
2484	Asia " (Plin. iii. Prooem.) ; but more
2485	reasonable people, says Strabo (i. p.
2486	•31), think the Aral)ian Gulf the proper
2487	separation of the two continents rather
2488	than the Nile. Ptolemy gives both
2489	banks of the Nile to Africa (iv. 5).
2490	Herodotus justly blames the incon-
2491	sistency of making Egypt belong to
2492	neither continent, and of considering
2493	the country and its people a new cre-
2494	ation. In Book iv. chs. 39 and 41,
2495	Herodotus does not mean to exclude
2496	Egypt both from Asia and from Libya,
2497	as he shows by mentioning the shijis
2498	of Neco sailing from the Arabian Gulf
2499	round Libya to the Mediterranean
2500	coasts of Egj'pt (ch. 42) ; he treats
2501	Libya as a distinct region, lying W.
2502	of Egypt, and makes Egypt itself the
2503	division between it and Asia. But in
2504	a geographical point of view his de-
2505	scription is very unsatisfactory. Dio-
2506	dorus seems to think that Herodotus
2507	made the Nile the boundary of Libya.
2508	— [G. W.]
p. 48
2509	26
2510	THE NILE,
2511	Book II.
2512	Greeks,'" we must regard Egyj)t as divided, along its
2513	whole length from Elephantine and the Cataracts to
2514	Cercasorus, into two parts, each belonging to a different
2515	portion of the world, one to Asia, the other to Libya ;
2516	since the Nile divides Egypt in two from the Cataracts
2517	to the sea, running as far as the city of Cercasorus' in a
2518	single stream, but at that point separating into three
2519	branches, whereof the one which bends eastward is
2520	'" That is, the course of the Nile ;
2521	which is made the boundary by Strabo
2522	(ii. p. 170), Mela (i. 1, 2, and 4), Uio-
2523	nysius Periegetes (1. 230), and, in one
2524	])lace, by A2;athemer (i. 1). Scylax
2525	(Peripl. p. 105) and Pliny (H. N. v. 9)
2526	agree with Herodotus in assigning the
2527	whole of Egypt to Asia. Ptolemy
2528	(Geog. i. 1) is the first extant geo-
2529	grapher who formally assigns the Ped
2530	Sea and the Isthmus of tSuez as the
2531	true boundary. In this he is followed
2532	by the Aimenian Geography (§ 16),
2533	and, in his description of the three
2534	continents, by Agathemer (ii. 6, 7).
2535	' Strabo calls it Cercesura, others
2536	Cercasorum. It is noticed again in
2537	chs. 15 and 97. Strabo shows it to
2538	have been in the same parallel as
2539	Heliopolis ; and Herodotus considers
2540	the Delta to end at Heliopolis (ii. 7),
2541	which brings the point of the Delta
2542	nearly opposite the present Shoobra.
2543	Here the river separated into three
2544	branches, the Pelusiac or Bubastite.
2545	to the E., the Canopic or Heracleotic
2546	to the W., and the Sebennytic which
2547	ran between them, continuing in the
2548	same general line of direction north-
2549	ward which the Nile had up to this
2550	point, and piercing the Delta through
2551	its centre. The Tanitic, which ran
2552	out of the Sebennytic, was at first the
2553	same as the Busiritic, but afterwards
2554	received the name of Tanitic, from
2555	the city of Tanis (now Sari), which
2556	stood on its eastern bank ; and between
2557	the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches
2558	was the isle of Myecphoris, which
2559	Herodotus says was opposite Bubastis
2560	(ii. 166). The Mendesian, which also
2561	ran eastward from the Sebennytic,
2562	passed by the modern town of Man-
2563	soordJi, and thence running by Mendes
2564	(from which it was called) entered the
2565	sea to the W. of the Tanitic. The
2566	Bolbitine mouth was that of the mo-
2567	dern Rosetta branch, as the Bucolic
2568	or Phatnietic was that of Damietta,
2569	and the lower parts of both these
2570	branches were artificial, or made by
2571	the hand of man ; on which account,
2572	though Herodotus mentions seven, he
2573	confines the number of the moutlis of
2574	the Nile to five. These two artificial
2575	outlets of the Nile are the only ones
2576	now remaining, the others having
2577	either disappeared, or being dry in
2578	most places during the summer ; and
2579	this fact seems to confirm an other-
2580	wise inexplicable prophecy of Isaiah
2581	(xi. 15), thought by some to apply to
2582	the Euphrates - (He) "shall smite it
2583	in its seven streams, and make men go
2584	over dry-shod." Most ancient writers
2585	agree in reckoning seven mouths, the
2586	order of which, beginning from the
2587	E., was — 1. the Pelusiac or Bubas-
2588	tite ; 2. the Sa'itic or Tanitic ; 3. the
2589	Mendesian ; 4. the Bucolic or Phat-
2590	metic (now of Damietta) ; 5. the Se-
2591	bennytic ; 6. the Bolbitine (now of
2592	Rosetta) ; 7. the Canopic or Heracle-
2593	otic ; but eleven are mentioned by
2594	Pliny, to which he adds four others
2595	called " false mouths." Most of these
2596	false mouths are described liy Strabo
2597	as very shallow, being probably dry
2598	in summer ; and there is reason to
2599	believe that the three great mouths
2600	were the Pelusiac, the Sebennytic, and
2601	the Canoi)ic, which last was originally
2602	the only one (Herod, ii. 179) which
2603	strangers were allowed to enter. See
2604	note«onch. 178.— [G. W.]
p. 49
2605	Chap. 18.
2606	AND ITS SEVEN MOUTHS.
2607	27
2608	called the Pelusiac moutb,^ and that which slants to
2609	the west, the Canobic. Meanwhile the straig'ht course
2610	of the stream, Avhich comes down from the upper coun-
2611	try, and meets the apex of the Delta, continues on,
2612	dividing the Delta down the middle, and emjDties itself
2613	into the sea by a mouth, which is as celebrated, and
2614	carries as large a body of water, as most of the others,
2615	the mouth called the Sebennvtic. Besides these there
2616	are two other mouths which run out of the Sebennvtic
2617	called respectively the Saitic and the Mendesian. The
2618	Bolbitine mouth, and the Bucolic, are not natural
2619	branches, but channels made by excavation.
2620	18. My judgment as to the extent of Egypt is con-
2621	firmed by an oracle delivered at the shrine of Amnion,
2622	of which I had no knowledge at all until after I had
2623	formed my opinion. It happened that the people of
2624	the cities Marea^ and Apis, who live in the part of
2625	Egypt that borders on Libya, took a dislike to the
2626	religious usages of the country concerning sacrificial
2627	animals, and wished no longer to be restricted from
2628	eating the flesh of cows.* So, as they believed them-
2629	^ From the Greek word for "mouth,"
2630	(TTOfia, or from the Latin ostium, the
2631	Arabs have given the name osfodm
2632	or oshtodm to each of the mouths of
2633	the Nile, with its regular plural asha-
2634	teem. The o is prefixed from the
2635	repugnance of Arabic to words begin-
2636	ning with s followed by auotlier con-
2637	sonant. Thus too the French has
2638	etahle, ecole, etat, the Spanish ispejo,
2639	and even the Italian places Jo instead
2640	of il before speccldo. — [&. W.]
2641	^ The town of Marea stood near the
2642	lake to which it gave the name Mare-
2643	otis (see note ® ch. 6). It was cele-
2644	brated for the wine produced in its
2645	vicinity, which appears to be included
2646	in the " wine of the Northern country,"
2647	so often mentioned in the lists of offer-
2648	ings in the Egyptian tombs. Strabo
2649	says in this district is the gi-eatest
2650	abundance of wine, which is confinned
2651	by Athenajus, ttoXXt) Se r^ wept ttjv
2652	yTjV TavTqv afXTreXos. Virgil (Georg.
2653	ii. 91) says, " Sunt Thasiaj vites, sunt
2654	et Mareotides alba? ;" and the expres-
2655	sion of Horace, " lymphatam jflare-
2656	otico," meaning "Egyptian wine,"
2657	l^oints it out as the most noted of
2658	that countr}^. Athena?us says " its
2659	colour is white, its quality excellent,
2660	and it is sweet and light, with a fra-
2661	grant bouquet, by no means astrin-
2662	gent, nor affecting the head ;" and
2663	Strabo gives it the additional merit of
2664	keeping to a great age. Athenajus,
2665	however, considers it inferior to the
2666	I'eniotic, and that of Anthylla appears
2667	to have been preferred to it and to all
2668	others. See below, n. * on ch.37, n.^
2669	on ch. GO, and n.* on ch. 77. — [G. W.]
2670	* Though oxen were lawful food to
2671	the Egyptians, cows and heifers were
2672	forbidden to be killed, either for the
2673	altar or the table, being consecrated
2674	(not as Herodotus states, ch. 41, to Isis,
p. 50
2675	28
2676	EXTENT OF EGYPT.
2677	13ooK ir.
2678	selves to be Libyans and not Egyj)tians, tbey sent to
2679	the shrine to say that, having nothing in common
2680	with the Egyptians, neither inhabiting the Delta nor
2681	using the Egyptian tongue, they claimed to be allowed
2682	to eat whatever they pleased. Their request, however,
2683	was refused by the god, who declared in reply that
2684	Egypt was the entire tract of country which the Nile
2685	overspreads and irrigates, and the Egyptians were the
2686	people who lived below Elephantine,^ and drank the
2687	waters of that river.
2688	19. So said the oracle. Now the Nile, when it over-
2689	flows, floods not only the Delta, but also the tracts of
2690	country on both sides the stream which are thought to
2691	belong to Libya and Arabia,^ in some places reaching
2692	to the extent of two days' journey from its banks, in
2693	some even exceeding that distance, but in others falling
2694	short of it.
2695	Concerning the nature of the river, I was not able to
2696	gain any information either from the priests or from
2697	others. I was particularly anxious to learn from them
2698	why the Nile, at the commencement of the summer
2699	solstice, begins to rise,'' and continues to increase for a
2700	but as Strabo says) to Athor, who
2701	was represented under the form of a
2702	S}»tted cow, and to whose temple at
2703	Atarbecliis, " the city of Athor," as
2704	Herodotus afterwards shows, the
2705	bodies of those that died were carried
2706	{ch. 41). It is, however, very excus-
2707	able in him to confound the two God-
2708	desses, as they often assume each
2709	other's attributes, and it is then diffi-
2710	cult to distinguisli them without the
2711	hieroglypliic legends. See note* on
2712	ch. 40, and note"^ on ch. 41.— [G. W.]
2713	' Syene and Elephantine were the
2714	real frontier of Egypt on the S. ;
2715	Egypt extending " from the tower
2716	(Migdol) of Syene " to the sea (Ezek.
2717	xxix. 10). When the frontier was ex-
2718	tended southward by the conquests of
2719	the Pharaohs, lower Ethiopia to the
2720	second cataract (the modern Nubia)
2721	was still considered out of Egypt,
2722	thougli part of its dominions; and the
2723	places there are often designated as
2724	" foreign."— [G. W.]
2725	" By the " tracts thought to belong
2726	to Libya and Arabia," Herodotus
2727	means the lands about the lake Mare-
2728	otis, and those on the canal which
2729	communicated with the Red Sea, as
2730	well as on the E. bank of the Pelusiac
2731	branch.— [G. W.]
2732	' Herodotus was surprised that the
2733	Nile should rise in the summer sol-
2734	stice and become low in winter. In
2735	the latitude of Memphis it begins to
2736	rise at the end of Jime, about the
2737	10th of August it attains to the height
2738	requisite for cutting the canals and
2739	admitting it into the interior of the
2740	plain ; and it is generally at its high-
2741	est about the end of September. This
p. 51
2742	Chap, 19.
2743	CAUSE OF THE INUNDATION.
2744	29
2745	linndred days — and why, as soon as that number is past,
2746	it forthwith retires and contracts its stream, continuing
2747	low during the whole of the winter until the summer
2748	solstice comes round again. On none of these points
2749	could I obtain any explanation from the inhabitants,*
2750	makes from 92 to 100 days, as Hero-
2751	dotus states. At the Cataracts the
2752	first rise is perceived some time sooner,
2753	about the end of May or the beginning
2754	of June, which led Seneca to say that
2755	"the first increase of the Nile was
2756	observable about the islands of Phila\"
2757	But in proportion as yon go higher
2758	into Ethiopia, the inundation is earlier,
2759	and at Khartoom it begins about the
2760	2nd of May, or, according to some,
2761	" early in April." But it sometimes
2762	happens that it rises a little and then
2763	falls again before the regular inunda-
2764	tion sets in, which is owing to partial
2765	rains in the upper part of its couise.
2766	In Egypt the first change from the
2767	pi'evious clearness of the stream in
2768	May is observed in its red and turbid
2769	colour, and it soon afterwards assumes
2770	a green appearance, when the water
2771	is no longer considered wholesome.
2772	For this reason a sup]ily previously
2773	laid up in jars was then used by the
2774	ancient Egyj^tians until it re-assumed
2775	a turbid but wholesome red colour ;
2776	which explains a remark of Aristides
2777	(Orat. Egypt, vol. ii.) that the Egyp-
2778	tians are the only people who preserve
2779	water in jars, and calculate its age as
2780	others do that of wine. It was not long
2781	before the water of the river became
2782	wholesome again, and the latter part
2783	of his assertion, respecting its improve-
2784	ment by age when preserved in jars, is
2785	only one of those antitheses in which
2786	the Greeks delighted. In large reser-
2787	voirs it may be kept two or three
2788	years, as in some houses of Cairo, but
2789	not inijiroved like wine. Though
2790	very wholesome, the water of the Nile
2791	sometimes disagrees for a few days
2792	with strangers, or with persons who
2793	have sojourned for a few months in
2794	the desert ; which accounts for the
2795	Persians having brought water into
2796	Egypt from Asia, and agrees with the
2797	remark of Athcnanis (Deipn. ii. p. 41),
2798	who attributes it to the nitre it con-
2799	tains. On the supposed causes of the
2800	inundation, see Eur. Hel. i. 3 ; Athen.
2801	ii. p. 278 seq. ed. Bip. ; and Palme-
2802	rius n. in Oudendorji's Lucan, b. x.
2803	215 seq.-[G. W.]
2804	^ The cause of the inundation is
2805	the water that falls during the rainy
2806	season in Abyssinia ; and the range
2807	of the tropical rains extends even as
2808	far N. as latitude 17" 43'. Homer
2809	was therefore right in giving to the
2810	Nile the e2:)ithet of buTrereos voTafiolo,
2811	and the passages quoted from the
2812	Koran relating to " the water sent
2813	by God from Heaven," inscribed on
2814	the Nilometer of the isle of Pioda,
2815	show that the Arabs were at a very
2816	early time correctly informed respect-
2817	ing the cause of the inundation. In
2818	the highlands of Abyssinia the rains
2819	continue from the middle of June to
2820	the middle of September, but at the
2821	sources of the While river the rains
2822	seem to set in about the middle of
2823	March, and also to last three months.
2824	The Bahr-el-Azrek, together with the
2825	more northerly Atbara, and their tri-
2826	butary streams, continue their supply
2827	of water from Abyssinia imtil the end
2828	of the inundation. The two main
2829	branches of the Southern Nile are the
2830	Bahr-el-A'biad and the Bahr-el-Az-
2831	rek, which unite at the modern Khar-
2832	toom, a new town on the point of
2833	land, about IBO miles to the N. of
2834	Sennar ; but though the latter is the
2835	smaller of the two, it is the one which
2836	2)ossesses the real characteristics of
2837	the Nile, having the same black allu-
2838	vial deposit, and the same beneficent
2839	properties when it inundates the land.
2840	The AVhite river, on the contrary, has
2841	a totally difTerent character, and its
2842	waters ]iossess none of those fertilizing
2843	qualities for which the Nile is cele-
2844	brated ; and this is probably the
2845	reason why the source of the Abys-
p. 52
2846	30
2847	THEORIES OF THE GREEKS.
2848	Book IT.
2849	though I made every inquiry, wishing to know what
2850	was commonly reported — they could neither tell me
2851	what special virtue the Nile has which makes it so
2852	opposite in its nature to all other streams, nor why,
2853	unlike every other river, it gives forth no hreezes ® from
2854	its surface.
2855	20. Some of the Greeks, however, wishing to get a
2856	sinian iDranch has teen so often looked
2857	u^ion as the real " fountain of the
2858	Nile." The names (Bahr el) Ahiacl
2859	and Azrek appear to signify the
2860	"white" and "black" rather than
2861	the "white" and "blue" (river).
2862	For though Aswed is commonly put
2863	in opposition to Abiad (as " black "
2864	and " white)," Azrek, which is pro-
2865	perh' "blue," is also used for what
2866	we call "jet black ;" and Hossdn Az-
2867	rek is a " dark black," not a " blue
2868	horse." It is true that " blue " is
2869	applied to rivers, as Nil ah, " blue
2870	water " (or " river") to the Indus, and
2871	the Sutlej is still the "blue river;"
2872	but the name Azrek seems to be given
2873	to the Abyssinian branch to distin-
2874	guish it from the AVestem or White
2875	Nile. Neel, or Nil, itself signifies
2876	"blue," and indigo is therefore "Nee-
2877	leh ;" biit the word is Indian not
2878	Arabic, Nila in Sanscrit being " blue."
2879	Though the Greeks called the river
2880	" Nile," as the Arabs do, that name is
2881	not found in the hieroglyi^hics, where
2882	the God Nilus and the river are both
2883	called " Hapi." The Hindoo Puranas
2884	also call the Nile " A7Za," but it was
2885	not an old Egyptian name, and those
2886	writings are of late date. It is called
2887	in Coptic iaro, " river," or io7n, " sea "
2888	(cp. 'QKeavos), analogous to the modern
2889	Arabic name bahr, " river," properly
2890	"sea" (see note ' on ch. 111). Nahum
2891	(iii. 3) speaks of "populous No
2892	(Thebes) whose rampart was the sea.'^
2893	The resemblance of the
2894	Q J name Hapi, " Nilus,"
2895	m "^ ■ and the bull-God Hapi
2896	w ^ <^ or Apis (see ch. 28, B.
2897	-A. ■ V iii.) recalls the Greek
2898	representation of a
2899	the form of a bull.
2900	under
2901	river
2902	like the Acheloiis and others (see
2903	^lian Var. Hist. ii. 33). Nilus is not
2904	taken from Nahr or Nahl, "river;"
2905	but Nahr, " river," is applied to the
2906	Euphrates, and Nahl to a ravine or
2907	torrent-bed, as (in 2 Kings xxiv. 7)
2908	to the ''to7rens jEgypti.''^ Nahl is
2909	not a "river," but, like Nullah, a
2910	" ravine," in India. Cp. Nahr, Nar,
2911	Naro, and other names of rivers, the
2912	Nereids, &c. (Seen.^'on ch. 50.) For
2913	black applied to water, cp. [xeXav vdap
2914	of Homer. The Nile was said to have
2915	received its name from King Nilus, but
2916	this is doubtless a fable ; and Homer
2917	calls it -^gj-ptus. The sources of the
2918	White Nile are still unknown ; and
2919	recent discoveries seem to assign a
2920	different position from that conjectured
2921	by the explorers sent by Mohammed
2922	Ali, who brought it from the eastward,
2923	at the back or S. of the Galla moun-
2924	tains ; as did a very intelligent native
2925	of the Jimma countiy I met at Cairo,
2926	who afSrmed that he had crossed the
2927	White river in going from his native
2928	land to Adderay or Huniir and the So-
2929	mauli district, on his way to the port
2930	of Berbera. Seneca's description of the
2931	Upper Nile, "magnas solitudines per-
2932	vagatus, et in paludes diiiusns, gen-
2933	tibus sparsus," might suit the cha-
2934	racter of the White Nile, though he
2935	is wrong in supposing it only assumed
2936	a new one bv forming a single stream
2937	" about Philffi." See Nat. Qua>st. b,
2938	iv. s. 2 ; cp. Plin. vi. 30.— [G. AV.]
2939	^ If this signifies that breezes are
2940	not generated by, and do not rise
2941	from, the Nile, it is true ; but not if
2942	it means that a current of air does
2943	not blow up the valley. Diodoms
2944	(i. 38) is wrong in stating that " the
2945	Nile has no clouds about it, does not
2946	engender c«ld winds, and has no
2947	fogs." The fogs are often very thick.
p. 53
2948	Chap. 20, 21. THE ETESIAN WINDS— THE OCEAN.
2949	31
2950	reputation for cleverness, have offered explanations of
2951	the j)henomena of the river, for which they have ac-
2952	counted in three different ways. Two of these I do not
2953	think it worth Avhile to speak of, further than simply
2954	to mention what they are. One pretends that the
2955	Etesian winds ^ cause the rise of the river by pre-
2956	venting the Nile-water from running off into the sea.
2957	But in the first place it has often happened, when the
2958	Etesian winds did not blow, that the Nile has risen
2959	according to its usual wont ; and further, if the
2960	Etesian winds produced the effect, the other rivers
2961	which flow in a direction opposite to those winds ought
2962	to present the same phenomena as the Nile, and the
2963	more so as they are all smaller streams, and have a
2964	weaker current. But these rivers, of which there are
2965	many both in Syria^ and Libya, are entirely unlike the
2966	Nile in this respect.
2967	21. The second opinion is even more unscientific
2968	than the one just mentioned, and also, if I may so say,
2969	more marvellous. It is that the Nile acts so strangely,
2970	because it flows from the ocean, and that the ocean
2971	flows all round the earth .^
2972	thousjh they disappear before mid-
2973	day.—[G. W.]
2974	' The annual N.W. winds blow
2975	from the Mediterranean during the
2976	inundation ; but they are not the
2977	cause of the rise of the Nile, though
2978	they help in a small degree to impede
2979	its course northwards. For the navi-
2980	gation of the river they are invalu-
2981	able, as well as for the health of the
2982	inhabitants ; and a very large boat
2983	could scarcely ascend the river during
2984	the immdation miless aided by them.
2985	Nor can they be said to cause the in-
2986	undation by driving the clouds to
2987	Abyssinia, as the rise of the Nile
2988	begins before they set in, though
2989	they may add to the water by later
2990	showers. — ' Gr. W.j
2991	^ It is possible to justify this state-
2992	ment, which at first sight seems un-
2993	true, by considering that the direction
2994	of the Etesian winds was north-iuest-
2995	erly rather than north. (Arist. Me-
2996	teor, ii. 6 ; Diod. Sic. i. 39.) This was
2997	natural, as they are caused by the rush
2998	of the air from the ^Mediterranean and
2999	Egean, to fill up the vacuum caused
3000	by the rarefaction of the atmosphere
3001	over tlie desert lands in the neigh-
3002	bourhood of the sea, which desert
3003	lands lie as much in Syria and Arabia
3004	on the east, as in Africa on the south.
3005	Though Syria therefore has only a
3006	torrent-bed generally dry (the Wady
3007	el Arish, or River of Egypt) which
3008	faces the north, it has many rivers
3009	which the Etesian winds might affect
3010	— all those, namelj', which face the
3011	west,
3012	=• That the Nile flowed from the
3013	ocean, and that the ocean flowed all
p. 54
3014	32
3015	MELTED SNOW.
3016	Book II.
3017	22. The thii'd explaiiation, which is very much more
3018	plausible than either of the others, is positively the
3019	furthest from the truth ; for there is really nothing in
3020	what it says, any more than in the other theories.
3021	It is, that the inundation of the Nile is caused by
3022	the melting of snows.* Now, as the Nile flows out
3023	of Libya,^ through Ethiopia, into Egypt, how is it
3024	possible that it can be formed of melted snow, running,
3025	as it does, from the hottest regions of the world into
3026	cooler countries ? Many are the proofs whereby any
3027	one capable of reasoning on the subject may be con-
3028	vinced that it is most unlikelv this should be the case.
3029	The first and strongest argument is furnished by the
3030	winds, which always blow hot from these regions.
3031	The second is, that rain and frost are unkno^ai there. ^
3032	round the earth, were certainly opi-
3033	nions of Hecatanis (Fr. 278). It is
3034	prohahle, therefore, that his account
3035	of the inundation is here intended.
3036	* Tliis was the opinion of Anaxa-
3037	goras, as well as of his pupil Euripides
3038	and others. (Diodor. i. 38 ; Euripid.
3039	Helena, begs. ; Seneca, Nat. Quajst.
3040	W. 2 ; Ptol. Geog. iv. 9.) Herodotus
3041	and Diodorus are wrong in supposing
3042	snow could not be found on mountains
3043	in the hot climate of Africa ; per-
3044	petual snow is not confined to certain
3045	latitudes ; and ancient and modern
3046	discoveries prove that it is found in
3047	the ranges S. of Abyssinia. Nor is the
3048	heat alwaj-s there what Herodotus
3049	imagines, and the cold of winter is
3050	often sensibly felt in the plains of
3051	Ethiopia aliout Gebel Birkel, far dis-
3052	tant from liigh mountains, though the
3053	thermometer does not range below
3054	freezing. " The lower limit of per-
3055	petual snow is not a mere function of
3056	geographical latitude, or of mean an-
3057	nual temperature ; nor is it at the
3058	ecpiator, or even within the tropics,
3059	that the snow-line reaches its greatest
3060	elevation above the level of the sea."
3061	(Humlioldt, Cosmos, i. p. 328.) At
3062	the equator, on the Andes of Quito,
3063	tlie limit is at 15,790 feet above the
3064	sea ; on the southern declivity of the
3065	Himalaya it lies at 12,982 feet, and
3066	on the northern declivity at 16,030 ;
3067	and the volcano of Aconcagua in lat.
3068	32° 30', which was found " to be more
3069	than 1400 ft. higher than Chimborazo,
3070	was once seen free from snow." (ji.
3071	329.) See also Lyell's Pr. of Geology,
3072	c. vii.— [G. W.]
3073	^ That is from Central Africa, Avhich
3074	was and still is the opinion of some
3075	geographers. Ihere apjiears more rea-
3076	son to place the source of the " White
3077	Nile " to the S. of the Abyssinian
3078	ranges, between lat. 7° and 8° N. ;
3079	thougli a branch does come from the
3080	"W., called Adda or Jengeh, which
3081	seem to be two names of the same
3082	stream. — [G. W\j
3083	® Herodotus was not aware of the
3084	rainy season in Sennar and the S.S.W.
3085	of Abyssinia, nor did he know of the
3086	Abyssinian snow which is mentioned
3087	in the inscription of Ptolemy Phila-
3088	delphus at Adulis, on the mountains
3089	beyond the Nile, " to tlie depth of a
3090	man's knee." (See Plin. vi. 34, and
3091	Vincent's Periphis.) The tropical rains
3092	do not extend as far N. as the Dar
3093	Shege'eh (Shaike'eh) and the great bend
3094	of the Nile, where showers and storms
3095	only occur occasionalh% generally
p. 55
3096	Chap. 22.
3097	NO SNOW IN CENTRAL LIBYA.
3098	33
3099	Now, whenever snow falls, it must of necessity rain
3100	within five days ;'^ so that, if there w^ere snow, there
3101	must be rain also in those parts. Thirdly, it is certain
3102	that the natives of the country are black with the
3103	heat, that the kites and the swallows remain there
3104	the whole year, and that the cranes, when they fly
3105	from the rigours of a Scythian winter, flock thither to
3106	pass the cold season.^ If then, in the country whence
3107	about the be2;iimiug of the inundation,
3108	and where a whole
3109	passes without
3110	year soinetunes
3111	rain. The tropical
3112	i-ains begin about the end of March or
3113	begiiuiing of April on the White Nile
3114	in lat. 4° N., and both the White and
3115	Blue Niles begin to rise at Khartoom
3116	the first week in May. The climate
3117	there is then very unhealthy, even
3118	for the natives. The rain falls for
3119	many hours, but with intervals of
3120	clear weather and a strong sun, raising
3121	a vapour that causes a bad fever. The
3122	vegetation is very rapid and luxurious.
3123	That part of the valley immediately
3124	to the N. of the range of the rains is
3125	then infested with clouds of flies — a
3126	perfect plague — but they do not ex-
3127	tend into the desert. Philostratus
3128	(Vit. Apoll. Tyan. ii. 9) says he does
3129	"not mean to gainsay the snows of
3130	the Ethiopians, or the hills of the
3131	Catadupi ;" but he evidently disbe-
3132	lieves the accounts given of them.
3133	The cause of the two branches rising
3134	at the same time at Khartoom is the
3135	rain that falls at no great distance
3136	from that spot. The effect of the more
3137	southerly rains is felt afterwards. Cal-
3138	listhenes, the pupil of Aristotle, and
3139	afterwards Agatharcides and Strabo
3140	attributed the inundation to the rainy
3141	season in Ethiopia ; and correctly, for
3142	it is caused by this, and not by the
3143	melting of snow. See Athena^us, Epit.
3144	ii, 89 ; Diod. i. 41 ; Strabo, xvii. p.
3145	1121.— [G. W.]
3146	^ I have found nothing in any
3147	writer, ancient or mt)dern, to confirm,
3148	or so much as to cxi)lain, this asser-
3149	tion. Aulus Gellius seems to have
3150	noticed it as an instance of "over
3151	rapid generalisation " (Epitom. lib.
3152	VOL. II.
3153	viii. c. 3) ; but his remarks on the
3154	subject are lost. It does not appear
3155	that at present, either in Asia Minor
3156	or in Soutliern Italy, rain necessarily
3157	follows snow within a certain number
3158	of days. But the meteorology of the
3159	countries bordering on the Mediter-
3160	ranean has no doubt undergone great
3161	changes since the time of Herodotus.
3162	In some parts of England tliere is a
3163	saying, that " three days of white
3164	frost are sure to bring rain."
3165	* Cranes and other wading birds
3166	are found, in the winter, in Upper
3167	Egypt, but far more in Ethiopia, and
3168	in spring immense flights of storks
3169	(Cicauia alba') collect together, which
3170	after soaring round in circles at a
3171	great height, return for the sumUiCr to
3172	the N. From the migration of cranes
3173	to Ethiopia arose the fable of the Cranes
3174	and Pygmies. The Ardea cinerea and
3175	garzetta, the platalea or spoonbill, the
3176	pelican, and some others remain the
3177	whole year in Egypt. The Grus cine-
3178	rea winters in Ethiopia about Gebel
3179	Berkel. This last lias been strangely
3180	mistaken for an ostrich at Beni Hassan,
3181	and is probably the Grus undeter-
3182	mined by Pickering (p. 169). The Ibis
3183	is rarely seen except near the Lake
3184	Menzaleh, where ducks, coots, and nu-
3185	merous water-fowl abound. The avocet
3186	was a native of Egypt as early as the
3187	I'ith dynasty. Tlie Numidian demoi-
3188	selle (ij);?/u'o/(0?V/es Virgo) is found, but
3189	not common, in Upper Egypt. Kites
3190	remain all the winter, and swallows
3191	also, though in small numbers, even at
3192	Thebes. The swallow was always the
3193	harliinger of spring, as in Greece and
3194	the rest of Europe ; and the subject is
3195	re]:»resented on Greek vases, where a
p. 56
3196	34
3197	TRUE REASON OF THE NILE'S SWELLING. Book II.
3198	the Nile has its source, or in that through which it
3199	flows, there fell ever so little snow, it is absolutely
3200	impossible that any of these circumstances could take
3201	place.
3202	23. As for the writer who attributes the phenomenon
3203	to the ocean,® his account is involved in such obscurity,
3204	that it is impossible to disprove it by argument. For
3205	my part I know of. no river called Ocean, and I think
3206	that Homer, or one of the earlier poets, invented the
3207	name, and introduced it into his poetry.
3208	24. Perhaps, after censuring all the opinions that
3209	have been put forward on this obscure subject, one
3210	ought to propose some theory of one's own. I will
3211	therefore proceed to explain what I think to be the
3212	reason of the Nile's swelling in the summer time.
3213	During the winter, the sun is driven out of his usual
3214	course by the storms, and removes to the upper parts of
3215	Libya. This is the whole secret in the fewest possible
3216	youth exclaims " Behold the swallow!"
3217	and another answers " Then it is now
3218	sprino;." (See Panofka's Bilder ant.
3219	Lebens, pi. xvii. fig. 6.) Boys (as
3220	Mr. Cumby observes) went about in
3221	Rhodes to collect gifts on tlie return
3222	of the swallow, as for the " grotto "
3223	at the beginning of our oyster season,
3224	though with greater pretensions, as
3225	Athenajus, quoting Theognis, shows
3226	(viii. p. 360), since they sometimes
3227	threatened to carry ofl" what was not
3228	granted to their request : — " We will
3229	go away if yon give us something ;
3230	if not, we will never let you alone.
3231	We will either carry off the door, or
3232	the lintel, or the woman who sits
3233	within ; she is small, and we can easily
3234	lift her. If you give any gift, let it
3235	be large. Open, open the door to the
3236	swallow, for we are not old men, but
3237	boys."— [G. W.]
3238	" The person to whom Herodotus
3239	alludes is Hecattv!us. He mentions
3240	it also as an opinion of the Greeks of
3241	Bontns, that the ocean flowed round
3242	the whole earth (B. iv. ch. 8). That the
3243	Nile flowed from the Ocean was main-
3244	tained by Hecataius, and by Euthy-
3245	menes of Marseilles (Pint, de PI.
3246	Phil, iv . 1), who related that, " hav-
3247	ing sailed round Africa, he found, as
3248	long as the Etesian winds blew, the
3249	water forced into the Nile caused it
3250	to overflow, and that when they
3251	ceased, the Nile, no longer receiving
3252	that impulse, subsided again. The
3253	taste of tlie water of the sea was also
3254	sweet, and the animals similar to
3255	those in the Nile." This mistake was
3256	owing to another river on the coast of
3257	Africa having been foimd to produce
3258	crocodiles and hippopotami. The name
3259	"Ocean" having be?n giveu by the
3260	Egyptians to the Nile does not appear
3261	to be connected with the remark of
3262	Herodotus, as it is not noticed hy him
3263	but by Diodorus (i. 96), and Herodotus
3264	says he "never knew of a river being
3265	called Ocean." We see from Pint.
3266	Plac. Ph. iv. 1, that Eudoxus knew
3267	that the summer and winter seasons
3268	were different in the N. and S. hemi-
3269	spheres.— [G, W.]
p. 57
3270	Chap. 23-25. THE SUN DRIVEN SOUTHWARD IN WINTER. 35
3271	words ; for it stands to reason that the country to which
3272	the Sun-god approaches the nearest, and which he passes
3273	most directly over, will be scantest of water, and that
3274	there the streams which feed the rivers will shrink the
3275	most.
3276	25. To explain, however, more at length, the case is
3277	this. The sun, in his passage across the upper parts of
3278	Libya, affects them in the following way. As the air
3279	in those regions is constantly clear, and the country
3280	warm through the absence of cold winds, the sun in his
3281	passage across them acts upon them exactly as he is
3282	wont to act elsewhere in summer, when his path is in
3283	the middle of heaven — that is, he attracts the water. ^
3284	After attracting it, he again repels it into the upper
3285	regions, where the winds lay hold of it, scatter it, and
3286	reduce it to a vapour, whence it naturally enough
3287	comes to pass that the winds which blow from this
3288	quarter — the south and south-west — are of all winds the
3289	most rainy. And my own opinion is that the sun does
3290	not get rid of all the water which he draws year by
3291	year from the Nile, but retains some about him. When
3292	the winter begins to soften, the sun goes back again to
3293	his old place in the middle of the heaven, and proceeds
3294	to attract water equally from all countries. Till then
3295	the other rivers run big, from the quantity of rain-water
3296	which they bring down from countries where so much
3297	moisture falls that all the land is cut into gullies ; but
3298	in summer, when the showers fail, and the sun attracts
3299	their water, they become low. The Nile, on the con-
3300	trary, not deriving any of its bulk from rains, and being
3301	in winter subject to the attraction of the sun, naturally
3302	runs at that season, unlike all other streams, with a less
3303	' Herodotus does not here allude to
3304	the old notion of the sun being "/ecZ
3305	by water," but to the moisture it
3306	attracts which is carried by the winds
3307	to the S., and then returned in the
3308	form of rain by the southerly winds.
3309	Compare Aristot. Meteor, ii. 2 ; Ana-
3310	creon, Od. xix. Trivfi. ... 6 S' rjXios
3311	6aka(T<Tav, Cic. Nat. Deer. b. ii.—
3312	[G. W.J
3313	D 2
p. 58
3314	36
3315	SOURCES OF THE NILE.
3316	Book II.
3317	burthen of water tlian in tlie summer time. For in
3318	summer it is exposed to attraction equally with all other
3319	rivers, but in winter it suffers alone. The sun, there-
3320	fore, I regard as the sole cause of the phenomenon.
3321	26. It is the sun also, in my opinion,which, by heating
3322	the space through which it passes, makes the air in Egypt
3323	so dry. There is thus perpetual summer in the upper
3324	parts of Libya. Were the position of the heavenly
3325	regions reversed, so that the place where now the north
3326	wind and the winter have their dwelling became the
3327	station of the south wind and of the noon-day, while,
3328	on the other hand, the station of the south wind became
3329	that of the north, the consequence would be that the
3330	sun, driven from the mid-heaven by the winter and the
3331	northern gales, would betake himself to the upper parts
3332	of Europe, as he now does to those of Libya, and then
3333	I believe his passage across Europe would affect the
3334	Ister exactly as the Nile is affected at the present day.
3335	27. Andwith respect to the fact that no breeze blows
3336	from the Nile, I am of opinion that no wind is likely
3337	to arise m very hot countries, for breezes love to blow
3338	from some cold quarter.
3339	28. Let us leave these things, however, to their
3340	natural course, to continue as they are and have been
3341	from the beginning. With regard to the sources of the
3342	Nile,^ I have found no one among all those with whom
3343	* The sources of the great eastern
3344	branch of the Nile have long been
3345	\ discovered . They were first visited by
3346	the Portuguese Jesuit, Father Loho,
3347	and afterwards by Bruce ; those of
3348	the White river are still luiknown
3349	(see above n. ^ on oh. 19). Herodotus
3350	affirms that of all the persons
3351	he had consulted, none pretended to
3352	give liini any information about the
3353	sources, except a scribe of the sacred
3354	treasury of Minerva at Sa'is, who said
3355	it rose from a certain abyss beneath
3356	two pointed hills between Syene and
3357	Filcpliantine. This is an important
3358	passage in his nairative, as it involves
3359	the question of his having visited
3360	the Thebaid. He soon afterwards
3361	(ch. 29) asserts that " as far as Ele-
3362	phantine he was an eye-witness " of
3363	what he describes ; and yet, though
3364	so much interested about this great
3365	question, and persuaded that the
3366	hierogrammat of Sais was joking, he
3367	did not when at Elejihantine look or
3368	inquire whether the Nile actually rose
3369	beneath the peaked hills of Crophi
3370	and Mophi, nor detect the fallacy of
3371	the story alx3ut the river flowing from
3372	the same soiu'ce northwards into
p. 59
3373	Chap. 26-28. STATEMENT BY THE SCRIBE OF SAIS.
3374	37
3375	I have conversed, whether Egyptians, Libyans, or
3376	Greeks,^ who professed to have any knowledge, except
3377	a single person. He was the scribe* who kept the
3378	reo'ister of the sacred treasures of Minerva in the citv of
3379	Sai's, and he did not seem to me to be in earnest when
3380	Egypt and southwards into Ethiopia.
3381	Its course was as well l^no^^^l in his
3382	day at Elephantine as now. This, and
3383	the fact of his making so much of the
3384	Labyrinth, wlien the monuments of
3385	Thebes would have excited his admi-
3386	ration in a far gi-eater degree, have
3387	Iwen thought to argiie against his
3388	having been at Thebes and Elejihan-
3389	tine ; and any one on visiting Elephan-
3390	tine would lie expected to speak of it
3391	as an island rather than as a " city."
3392	It is, however, possible that his omit-
3393	ting to describe the monuments of
3394	Thebes, which. to this day excite the
3395	wonder of all who see them, may have
3396	been owing to their having been fully
3397	described by Hecata?us. The names
3398	Crophi and ^lophi are like the un-
3399	meaning words used in joke, or in
3400	the nursery, by Orientals, at the
3401	present day ; the second ref>eating the
3402	sound of the first, and always begin-
3403	ning with hi, as " fersh mersh," " salta
3404	inalta," &c. Crophi and Mophi do not,
3405	as has been supposed, signifv " bad "
3406	and "good."— [G. W.J
3407	Colonel Mure (Lit. of Greece, vol.
3408	iv. p. 387) compares the Crophi and
3409	Mophi of the Saitic scribe to the Gog
3410	and Magog " of our own nursery my-
3411	thology,'''' apparently forgetting that
3412	the words Gog and Magog come to us
3413	from Scripture (Ezek. xxxviii. 2;
3414	Rev, XX. 8). The formation of un-
3415	meaning or absurd words by means of
3416	a rhyming re])etition, together with a
3417	change of the initial letter, is common
3418	in our own language. With us the
3419	second word beiiins ordinarily, not
3420	with m, but with the labial nearest
3421	to m, viz. h, or with its cognate
3422	tenuis, p. Examples of this usage
3423	are — liurly-hurly, hocus-pocus, hi(j-
3424	gledy-ingglfdy, hubbub, nirainy-pi-
3425	miny, namhy-pamhy, &c. In huyyer-
3426	mnyger and pjell-melJ, we keep to the
3427	Oriental usage, and employ the m.
3428	In helter-skelter, hurn-rlrura, and j er-
3429	haps a few other Avords, we adopt an
3430	entirely diflerent sound.
3431	^ This was one of the great i))-o-
3432	blems of antiquity, as of later times ;
3433	and Ca?sar is even reported to have
3434	said : — " spes sit mihi certa videndi
3435	Xiliacos fontes, belluni civile relinquani."
3436	— Luc. Phans. x. 191. Cp. Hor. iv.
3437	Od. xiv. 45 : —
3438	" Fontium qui celat origines
3439	Nilus."
3440	See above, note « ch. 19.— [G. W.]
3441	* The scribes had diflerent offices
3442	and grades. The sacred scribes held
3443	a high post in the jiriesthood ; and
3444	tlie royal scribes were the king's sons
3445	and military men of rank. There
3446	were also ordinary scribes or notaries,
3447	who were conveyancers, vrroie letters
3448	on business, settled accounts, and per-
3449	formed different offices in the market.
3450	The sacred scribes, or hierogi-ammats,
3451	had also various duties. Some, as
3452	the one here mentioned, were scribes
3453	of the treasury, others of the grana-
3454	ries, others of the documents belong-
3455	ing to the temple, &c. The scribes
3456	always had \\\t\\ them a bag, or case
3457	having wooden sides, ornamented with
3458	coloured devices generally on leather,
3459	and a pendent leatlier mouth tied by
3460	a thong to hold the ink-palette with
3461	its reed-pens, the pa]yms-rolls, and
3462	other tilings they required, which was
3463	carried by an attendant slunsc at his
3464	back ; but in the house a box was
3465	sometimes used in its stead. Lucian
3466	says (Macrob. s. 4) thej' were remark-
3467	able for longevity, like the Brachnianes
3468	(Brahmins) of India, and others,
3469	owing to their mode of life. (Of
3470	their dress and duties, see note ^ ch.
3471	37, figs. 8, 9, and woodcut note ^ ch.
3472	177.)— [G. W.]
p. 60
3473	38
3474	CROPHl AND MOPHI.
3475	Book II.
3476	he said that he knew them perfectly welL His story
3477	was as follows : — " Between Syene, a city of the Thebais,
3478	and Elephantine, there are " (he said) " two hills with
3479	sharp conical tops ; the name of the one is Crophi, of
3480	the other, Mophi. Midway between them are the
3481	fountains of the Nile, fountains which it is impossible
3482	to fathom. Half the water runs northward into Egypt,
3483	half to the south towards Ethiopia." The fountains
3484	were known to be unfathomable, he declared, because
3485	Psammetichus, an Egyptian king, had made trial of
3486	them. He had caused a rope to be made, many thou-
3487	sand fathoms in length, and had sounded the fountain
3488	with it, but could find no bottom. By this the scribe
3489	gave me to understand, if there was any truth at all in
3490	what he said, that in this fountain there are certain
3491	strong eddies, and a regurgitation, owing to the force
3492	wherewith the water dashes against the mountains,
3493	and hence a sounding-line cannot be got to reach the
3494	bottom of the spring.
3495	29. No other information on this head could I obtain
3496	from any quarter. All that I succeeded in learning
3497	further of the more distant portions of the Nile, by
3498	ascending myself as high as Elephantine, and making
3499	inquiries concerning the parts beyond, was the follow-
3500	ing : — As one advances beyond Elephantine, the land
3501	rises .^ Hence it is necessary in this part of the river to
3502	* This fact should have convinced
3503	Herodotus of the improbability of the
3504	story of the river flowing southwards
3505	into Ethioi^ia. That boats are obliged
3506	to be dragsied by ropes in order to pass
3507	the rapids is true ; and in performing
3508	this arduous duty great skill and
3509	agility are required, the men being
3510	often obliged to swim from rock to
3511	rock to secure the ropes and alter the
3512	direction of the draft. After passing
3513	the first cataract at Asouan (the an-
3514	cient Syene), which is done in about
3515	five hours, the lx)at sails unimpeded
3516	to the second cataract, a distance of
3517	232 miles ; a rocky bed of the river
3518	called Batn - el - Hadjar, " belly of
3519	stone," continues thence about 45 m.
3520	to Semneh, after which it is navigable
3521	here and there, with occasional rapids,
3522	as far as the third cataract of Hannek,
3523	below Tombos, about lat. 19° 40'.
3524	Beyond this is an unimpeded sail of
3525	200 m. (passing the moilern Ordee and
3526	Old Dongola) to the fourth cataract,
3527	about 18 m. above Gebel Berkel.
3528	From thence to the N. end of the isle
3529	of Meroe is a sail of about 240 m., the
3530	river being open some way further to
3531	the S., beyond the site of the city of
p. 61
3532	Chap. 29.
3533	THE NILE ABOVE ELEPHANTINE.
3534	39
3535	attach a rope to the boat on each side, as men harness an
3536	ox, and so proceed on the journey. If the rope snaps,
3537	the vessel is borne away down stream by the force of
3538	the current. The navigation continues the same for
3539	four days, the river winding greatly, like the Maiander,''
3540	and the distance traversed amounting to twelve schoenes.
3541	Here you come upon a smooth and level jolain, where
3542	the Nile flows in two branches, round an island called
3543	Tachompso.'^ The country above Elephantine is inha-
3544	Meroe and the modern Shendy. Be-
3545	tween Meroe and Dongola is the
3546	great bend or " elbow " of the Nile,
3547	where the course of the river changes
3548	from a northerly to a southerly direc-
3549	tion, as described by Strabo (b. xvii.
3550	begs.) Part of the route from Asouan
3551	to Meroe may be performed by land,
3552	leaving the Nile at Korosko, below
3553	Dcrr the capital of Nubia, from which
3554	point is a caravan round to the great
3555	bend at Aboo-Hamed above Gebel-
3556	Berkel, a journey of eight days with
3557	camels. — [G. W.]
3558	^ The windings of the Ma^ander are
3559	perhaps at the present day still more
3560	remarkable than they were anciently,
3561	owing to the gi'owth of the alluvial
3562	plain through which it flows. Chandler
3563	observes : " The river runs from the
3564	mouth of the lake luith many windings,
3565	through groves of tamarisk, toward
3566	Miletus, proceeding by the right wing
3567	of the theatre in mazes to the sea,
3568	which is in view, and distant, as we
3569	computed, about eight miles." (Tra-
3570	vels, i. ch. 53.) A good representation
3571	of these sinuosities will be found in
3572	the Ionian Antiquities (vol. i. ch. iii.
3573	plate 1). By the age of Augustus the
3574	word "Ma3ander" had come to be used
3575	in its modern generic sense (Strab. xii.
3576	p. 835 ; Virg. Mn. v. 251).
3577	' The distances given by Herodotus
3578	are 4 days through the district of Do-
3579	decaschoenus to Tachompso Isle, then
3580	40 days by land, then 12 days by boat
3581	to Meroe, altogether 56 days. The
3582	Nile, however, is not tortuous like
3583	the Maeander, nor is there any gi-eat
3584	bend before that near Korosko, and
3585	his isle of Tachompso is uncertain ;
3586	but as he speaks of its being inhabited
3587	partly by Egyptians, i^artly by Ethi-
3588	ojiians, it is possible that he may have
3589	confounded it with Philfe, which
3590	Strabo calls " an abode common to "
3591	those two people. Ptolemy places
3592	Metacompso opposite Pselcis, where a
3593	large Egyptian fortress of very early
3594	date still remains, and which must
3595	have continued to be a strong post in
3596	the time of the Pomans. It was at
3597	Pscelcis that Petronius defeated the
3598	generals of Candace, before he ad-
3599	vanced to Napata, and the island
3600	mentioned by Strabo, to which the
3601	routed enemy swam for protection,
3602	was perhaps the Tachompso of Hero-
3603	dotus. If so, that island has since
3604	been carried away. The large lake,
3605	said to have been in its vicinity, was
3606	merely the open Nile (a reach being
3607	probably called, as it now is, a " lake "
3608	or birkeh) ; and from thence was a
3609	march of 40 days by land to that part
3610	where the Nile was again navigable
3611	(at the island now called Tombos, on
3612	the frontier of Dongola). From this
3613	was a sail of 12 days more to Meroe.
3614	The omission of all mention of Napata,
3615	the old capital of Ethiopia, by the in-
3616	formant of Herodotus, might at first
3617	sight lead us to suppose the land-
3618	journey was through the desert (to
3619	Aboo-Hamed) ; but the distance of 12
3620	days thence to Meroe is far too much ;
3621	and Herodotus evidently speaks of
3622	the journey by the river-side to the
3623	spot where the Nile was again navi-
3624	gable. Gebel Berkel is apparently
3625	the "sacred moimtain" mentioned by
3626	Strabo (xvi.), and it is always so called
3627	in the hieroglyphics. The distances
p. 62
3628	40
3629	THE ISLAND TACHOMPSO.
3630	Book II,
3631	bited by the Ethiopians, who possess one half of this
3632	island, the Egyptians occupying the other. Above
3633	from Syeiie to Napata, and from this
3634	to Meroe, do not a2;ree with the po-
3635	sition of Gebel Berkel, and if Napata
3636	M.P.
3637	,S.yene to Napata . 514
3638	Napata to Meroe . 360
3639	Enj;. miles,
3640	nearly 474
3641	above 331i
3642	was placed lower down at old Dongola,
3643	that position wonld agree better with
3644	the ancient measurements. They are —
3645	874 .. about 8041
3646	Eng. milce.
3647	Asouan to Old Dongola 484
3648	Dongola to Gebel Berkel . 80 \| Dongola to ") „„^
3649	G. Berkel to Meroe Island 257 ( Meroe Island 5 '
3650	Total 821
3651	The Roman mile may be reckoned
3652	at 4860 feet ; for though I found 4785
3653	to be its length, by measuring two,
3654	marked by milestones on the coast of
3655	Syria, and other authorities giye it
3656	4842 and 4828, or 4820 feet, 'Caya?
3657	Canina has sho\\m it to be 4861 English
3658	feet, or metres 1487-730. The great
3659	remains at Gebel Berkel, and the many
3660	pyramids near it, ar2;ue that it was the
3661	capital, unless indeed it was merely
3662	the " holy hill," like that of Sarabat
3663	el Kliadem in the peninsula of Mount
3664	Sinai, chosen by the Egyptians as
3665	early as the reign of Osirtasen I.
3666	If "the small city of Napata" stood
3667	at old Dongola (formerly called Dan-
3668	kala), which was evidently the site of
3669	an ancient town, and has Ions been
3670	the capital of that part of Ethiopia,
3671	this micrht account for Meroe having
3672	a similar name, " Dunkalah." On
3673	theother hand, the distance, 80 Roman
3674	miles, from Tergedum to Napata,
3675	aerees well with that from old Don-
3676	>Tola to Gebel Berkel ; and the large
3677	island (now Tangol or Tangos) just
3678	above old Dongola might answer to the
3679	I. of Gagaudes. On the whole, there
3680	is <rood reason for placing Na]\ata at
3681	Gebel Berkel ; and it is one of the
3682	gi-eatest errors to suppose the ancients
3683	must always lie ridit in their dis-
3684	tances, or in any other information.
3685	The name n-ape-t seems to signify
3686	" of Ane-t " or " Tape," as if it were
3687	derived from or an offset " of Thebes "
3688	(in Harris's Standards) ; and it was
3689	not unusual to give the names of
3690	Egyptian cities to those of Ethiopia,
3691	as was often done in Nubia.
3692	The Itinerary of Antoninus ,gives
3693	these names of phiccs in Lower Ethi-
3694	o[)ia (or Nubia) : —
3695	Contra-Syene to Parembole (Dabod)
3696	Tzitzi
3697	„ Taphis (Tefi, 'I'rfyfee) .
3698	Talmis ( Kalabsbee) .
3699	,, Tutzis (Gerf Hossayn)
3700	„ Pselcis (Dakkeh) .
3701	„ Corte (Kortee) .
3702	„ Ileirasycaniinon (Ma-
3703	harraka) ....
3704	12
3705	2
3706	14
3707	8
3708	20
3709	12
3710	4
3711	80
3712	(About 73^ English miles ; the real distance being
3713	about 711 by land, and by water about 84.)
3714	On the opjiosite bank : —
3715	Heirasycaminon to Contra-Pselcis
3716	„ „ Contra-Talniis
3717	„ „ Contra-Taphis
3718	Philaj . .
3719	„ ,. Syene . .
3720	M.P.
3721	u
3722	24
3723	10
3724	24
3725	3
3726	72
3727	(About 66i English miles.)
3728	Pliny (b. xxix.) mentions the towns
3729	taken by Petronius on his way to Na-
3730	pata : —
3731	Pselcis.
3732	Primis.
3733	Aboccis.
3734	Phthuris.
3735	Cambusis.
3736	Attena.
3737	Stadysis, remarkable for its cataract.
3738	Napata, plundered by him ; and he went
3739	870 M.r. above Syene.
3740	The distances given by Pliny are—
3741	MP.
3742	From Syene to Heirasycaminon ... 54
3743	„ „ Tama
3744	75
3745	„ ,, the Ethiopian district of
3746	Euonymiton . . .120
3747	„ „ Acina
3748	54
3749	„ „ Pitara ..... 25
3750	„ „ Tergedum (between which
3751	two is the island Ga-
3752	gaudes)
3753	106
3754	„ „ Napata, a small city . . 80
3755	Then to Meroe island, the city being 60 m.p.
3756	from the beginning of the island .
3757	514
3758	360
3759	874
3760	(About 80-1 i English miles.)
3761	Ptolemy (Geog. iv. 5, 7 & 8) omits
p. 63
3762	Chap. 29.
3763	MERGE.
3764	41
3765	tlie island there is a great lake, the shores of which are
3766	inhabited by Ethiopian nomads ; after passing it, you
3767	come again to the stream of the Nile, which runs into
3768	the lake. Here you land, and travel for forty days
3769	along the banks of the river, since it is impossible to
3770	proceed further in a boat on account of the sharp peaks
3771	which jut out from the water, and the sunken rocks
3772	which abound in that part of the stream. When you
3773	have passed this portion of the river in the space of
3774	forty days, you go on board another boat, and proceed
3775	by water for twelve days more, at the end of which
3776	time you reach a great city called Meroe, which is said
3777	to be the capital of the other Ethiopians.* The only gods
3778	the names of towns lietween Syene
3779	and Pselcis ; but opposite Pselcis he
3780	places Metacompso ; and then " after
3781	Pselcis and the great cataract (of
3782	Wadee Halfeh) he mentions Tasitia,
3783	BoUm (Bowi/), Autoba, Plithuri, Piere,
3784	Ptemythis (nre/:iv^ts), Abuncis, Cam-
3785	hysis ceraritmi, Erchoas, Satachtha,
3786	Mori (jSlofjov), Kacis, and Tathis, on
3787	the W. bank ; and on the opposite
3788	side Pnups, Berethis, Gerbo, Pataeta,
3789	Ponteris, Primis-parva, Arabis, Na-
3790	pata, Sacole, Sandace, Orbadari, Pri-
3791	mis-magna, and then the island
3792	forming the district of Meroe, lying
3793	between the Nile which flows to the
3794	W. of it, and the Astaboras which is
3795	to the E., beyond which is Sacolche,
3796	Eser, Dororum (Aapcov) Vicus, and
3797	then the junction of the Nile and As-
3798	tapus. But his adding " and then the
3799	junction of the Astaboras and the
3800	Astapus" tends to mislead; and he
3801	probably meant "of the Astasobas
3802	and the Astapus."— [G. W.]
3803	^ This is in contradistinction to the
3804	j/o/idSes, which in this instance may
3805	have been merely a corruption of " No-
3806	bata3," since an agricultural people
3807	could not have been nomade. For
3808	though late writers pretend that the
3809	Nobatse were a Libyan people, intro-
3810	duced into the valley of the Nile under
3811	the Piomau Empire, it is evident that
3812	the name was of early date and Ethi-
3813	opian, having been taken from the
3814	ram-headed deity principally wor-
3815	shipped there, Noub, Noum, or Nou,
3816	who was the Great Qod of Ethiopia
3817	from the most remote periods (see next
3818	note, and App. cii. iii. § 2). Aldioyjr
3819	was evidently a corruption of the
3820	Egyptian name for southern Ethiopia
3821	or Nubia, " Ethaush " or " Ethosh,"
3822	the^^s being substituted for sh, a sound
3823	the Greeks could neither write nor pro-
3824	nounce. The Greeks (like the Arabs)
3825	often adopted a word having some sig-
3826	nification in their own language, if it
3827	resembled a foreign one, and the Greek
3828	derivation of AWioyj/ is on a par with
3829	that of Isis, from elais, " knowledge "
3830	(Plut. de Is. s. 2), and many others.
3831	The isle of Meroe, formed bj' three
3832	rivers, as Strabo and Josephus state,
3833	Avas the peninsula contained between
3834	the main branch of the Nile on the
3835	west ; the Astapus or the modem
3836	Abawee Nile, or Bahr-el-Azrek, with
3837	its tributary the Rahad (probably the
3838	Astasobas) on the south ; and the As-
3839	taboras, now the A'tbara, on the east ;
3840	and according to Strabo (xvi. and xvii.
3841	pp. 1095, 1162) it had the form of an
3842	oblong shield, measuring 3000 stadia
3843	(at kast 341 miles) and 1000 stadia
3844	(about 113\| miles) in breadth (see
3845	Plin. vi. 29). The city of Meroe
3846	stood near the modern Dankalah, re-
3847	markable for its numerous pyramids,
3848	27 m. N.E. of the modern Shendy.
3849	Napata was also the capital of Ethi-
p. 64
3850	,42
3851	GODS OF ETHIOPIA.
3852	Book II.
3853	worshipj^ed by the inhabitants are Jupiter and Bacchus f
3854	to whom great honours are paid. There is an oracle of
3855	opia, and that too at a very remote
3856	period ; and INIeroe was probably tlie
3857	seat of an independent kingdom. The
3858	appearance of the pyramids of Dan-
3859	kalali indeed show it to have been
3860	very ancient, and after tlie Egj'ptian
3861	kings of the 12th and 18th dynasties
3862	had established themselves at Napata,
3863	Meroe became the sole capital of the
3864	Ethiopian kings ; and thongh Xapata
3865	was the ro3'al seat in the time of the
3866	Sabacos and Tirhaka, Meroe was still
3867	the metropolis of Southern Ethiopia,
3868	as it was in the days of Herodotus
3869	and of the Ptolemies ; but it had lost
3870	all its importance in the time of the
3871	Roman Empire. The pyramids of
3872	Noori doubtless belonged also to ISTa-
3873	pata, the neighbouring ones at Gebel
3874	Berkel (Napata) itself being of a rather
3875	more recent date ; and though the py-
3876	ramids of Pankalah have so great an
3877	appearance of age, the tropical rains
3878	have had an effect on them to which
3879	those of Noori were not subject, and no
3880	ruinsof temples exist at Meroe of an
3881	antiquity at all comparable to that
3882	of the oldest ones at Gebel Eerkel.
3883	The notion of Diodorus and Strabo
3884	that Meroe was built by Cambyses
3885	is too extravagant to be noticed.
3886	There are some curiously fortified
3887	lines on the hills about five or six
3888	miles below Gebel Berkel, com-
3889	manding the approaches to that
3890	place, by the river and on the
3891	shore, apparently of Ethiopian
3892	time. I believe they have not
3893	been noticed ; and I was led to
3894	examine them by perceiving their
3895	stone walls upon the irregularly
3896	indented cliffs they cover. Thej^
3897	extend 'about half-a-mile inland
3898	from the rivei*, and from their
3899	following ever}- projecting corner
3900	of the hills, the total number of
3901	feet of wall is nearly 10,000 ;
3902	but there are no vestiges of houses
3903	or other buildings within the area
3904	they enclose. — [G. W.]
3905	Meroe is frequently mentioned under
3906	the name oi Mirukh in the Assyrian
3907	inscriptions.
3908	" Amim and Osiris answered to
3909	Jupiter and Bacchus ; and both the
3910	Amim of Thebes and the ram-headed
3911	Nou (Noum, Noub, or Kneph) were
3912	worshipped in Ethiopia. But it is this
3913	last deity to whom Herodotus alludes ;
3914	for he says " the Egj-ptians call Ju-
3915	piter Ammon," and in later times the
3916	ram-headed God was also supposed to
3917	answer to Jupiter. Tliis is shown by
3918	inscriptions at the Oasis and at Syeue,
3919	where he was worshipped under the
3920	name of Jupiter- Ammon-Cenubis, in
3921	company with Sate (Juno) and Anou-
3922	k6 (Yesta), who formed the triad of the
3923	cataracts. (See note ^ ch. 42.) Osiris,
3924	the God of the dead, was worshipped
3925	in Ethiopia, as throughout Egypt, the
3926	religious rites of that country having
3927	been borrowed from the Egyptians ;
3928	but it cannot be said that these two
3929	were the only Gods of Ethiopia. Strabo
3930	mentions the worship of Hercules, Pan,
3931	and Isis, as well as a barbaric God, at
3932	Meroe (xvii. 565) ; and in the temples
3933	of that coimtry, whether erected by
3934	Ethiopians or by Egyptian mouarchs
3935	who ruled there, many other Gods
p. 65
3936	Chap. 30.
3937	THE DESERTERS.
3938	43
3939	Jupiter in the city, which directs the warhke expeditions
3940	of the Ethiopians ; when it commands they go to war,^
3941	and in whatever direction it bids them march, thither
3942	straightway they carry their arms.
3943	30. On leaving this city, and again mounting the
3944	stream, in the same space of time which it took you to
3945	reach the capital from Elephantine, you come to the
3946	Deserters,^ who bear the name of Asmach. This word.
3947	shared in the worship paid to the prin-
3948	cipal deity of the sanctuary. Besides
3949	many of the usual Egyptian deities are
3950	some of uncommon form peculiar to
3951	Ethiopia ; and at Wady Owatayb is one
3952	with three lion's heads and four arms,
3953	more like an Indian tlian an Egjqjtian
3954	God, though he wears a head-di'ess
3955	common to Gods and Kings, espe-
3956	cially in Ptolemaic and Roman times.
3957	He was perhaps the barbaric God
3958	mentioned by Strabo. The whole cha-
3959	racter of the temple is copied from
3960	Egypt, and the Amun of Thebes and
3961	the ram-headed Noum or Noub hold
3962	the most conspicuous ])laces there.
3963	Indeed the ram-headed God was the
3964	chief deity throughout Ethiopia ; and
3965	though a lion-headed God is found at
3966	Amara, as well as at Wady Owatayb,
3967	there is no appearance of his having
3968	been of the same early age as Noum,
3969	and the king whose name occurs on
3970	both temples is of late time. It is to
3971	these two, Jupiter and Osiris, that
3972	Strabo alludes when he says " tlie
3973	Ethiopians acknowledge two Gods, one
3974	immortal, the cause of all things, the
3975	other mortal, who has no name," or
3976	more jiroperly whose name was not
3977	uttered, the mysterious Osiris, who
3978	had lived on earth, and, dying, had
3979	become the judge of men in a future
3980	state. He also mentions other in-
3981	ferior Gods.— ^G. W.]
3982	' The influence of the priests at
3983	Meroe, through the belief that they
3984	spoke the commands of the Deity, is
3985	more fully shown by Strabo and Dio-
3986	dorus, who say it was their custom
3987	to send to the king, when it jjleased
3988	them, and order him to put an end to
3989	himself, in obedience to the will of
3990	i33
3991	the oracle imparted to them ; and to
3992	such a degree had they conti-ived to
3993	enslave the understanding of those
3994	princes by superstitious fears, that
3995	they were obeyed without opposition.
3996	At length a king, called Ergamenes,
3997	a contemporary of Ptolemy Philadel-
3998	phus, dared to disobey their orders,
3999	and having entered " the golden
4000	chapel " with his soldiers, caused them
4001	to be put to death in his stead, and
4002	abolished the custom (Diod. iii. 6 ;
4003	Strabo, xvii. p. 1163). Ergamenes had
4004	" studied the philosophy of Greece,"
4005	and had the sense to distinguish be-
4006	tween priestly rule and religion, know-
4007	ing that blind obedience to
4008	the priests did not signify
4009	obedience to the divine will ;
4010	but these, vested rights on
4011	man's credulity seem to
4012	have been afterwards revived
4013	among the Ethiopians, and
4014	the expedition sent by Mo-
4015	hammed Ali up the White
4016	Nile learnt that the same
4017	custom of ordering the king
4018	to die now exists among
4019	some of their barbarous descendants.
4020	The name of Ergamenes is found in
4021	the temple of Dakkeh, in Nubia. —
4022	[G. W.]
4023	2 The descendants of the 240,000
4024	deserters from Psammetichus lived,
4025	according to Herodotus, 4 months'
4026	journey above Elephantine (ch. 31),
4027	from which Meroe stood half-way.
4028	He reckons (ch. 29) 56 days from
4029	Elephantine to Meroe, the double of
4030	which would be 112, instead of 120
4031	days; and Meroe being half-way
4032	would require the country of the
4033	Automoli to be in the modern Abys-
4034	9i-
4035	«#
4036	li
p. 66
4037	44
4038	MEANING OF " ASMACH."
4039	Book II.
4040	anguage, means
4041	translated into our h
4042	stand on the left hand of the kmg." ^
4043	u the men who
4044	These Deserters
4045	sinia. They were called ^Aafiiix, in
4046	allusion to their original ) ost on the
4047	"left," not of the king, but of the
4048	Egj'ptiau arm}% the cause of their
4049	desertion (see following note). This
4050	word may be traced in the shemal,
4051	"left," of the Arabic; and Esar, a
4052	city mentioned by Pliny, 17 days
4053	from Meroe, where the Egyptian de-
4054	serters lived 300 years, is remarkable
4055	from having the same signification in
4056	Arabic, yesdr being also " the left."
4057	Some have derived the name of Axum
4058	in Abyssinia from 'Ka-fxax- According
4059	to Strabo (xvii. p. 541) they were
4060	called Sembrites, or SebritcT, meaning
4061	" strangers," wlaich may either be
4062	compounded of the Egyptian shemmo,
4063	" stranger," and heri (or mheri),
4064	" new ;" or be taken from tlie name
4065	of the country they inhabited, Sciba ;
4066	for " Sembrites" is the same as
4067	" Sebrites," mb being often pro-
4068	nounced simply h. It is remarkable
4069	that Strabo places the country tliey
4070	inhabited, called Tenesis, inland from
4071	the port of Saba (xvii. p. 530). They
4072	lived in an island above that of Meroe,
4073	and in his time they were subject to
4074	one of the many queens who at va-
4075	rious periods ruled Ethiopia : for there
4076	was a queen Candace in the time of
4077	Petronius ; and this title, rather than
4078	name, passed, according to Pliny
4079	(vi. 29), from one queen to another
4080	for many years. The monuments of
4081	Gebel Berkel, and other places, also
4082	show that queens frequently held the
4083	sceptre in Ethiopia ; but the queen
4084	of Sheba in Solomon's time, claimed
4085	by the Abyssinians, was evidently not
4086	from that country, for Sheba was pro-
4087	bably in the southern part of Arabia,
4088	and the Araliians, like the Ethiopians,
4089	were frequently governed by queens.
4090	(See note to Book iii. ch. 107). The
4091	name Saba may point out a connexion
4092	Avith tlie country where the ?joH-god was
4093	worshipped (sa6« meaning " lion ") ;
4094	and Josephus (Antiq. ii. 5) says that
4095	Saba was a name of Meroe. The
4096	withdrawal of the Egyptian troops to
4097	Ethiopia is readily accounted for by
4098	the intercourse that had so long sub-
4099	sisted between the two countries, the
4100	royal family of Ethiopia being often
4101	related by marriage to that of Egypt,
4102	which accounts for some jarinces of
4103	Cush having the title " royal son" in
4104	the Theban sculptures (though these
4105	are mostly Egyptian viceroys, and sons
4106	of Pharaohs) ; and the fact of the royal
4107	succession having been maintained in
4108	the female line ex[)lains the reason of
4109	so many queens having ruled in Ethi-
4110	opia. This too gave the Ethiopians a
4111	claim on the throne of Egypt wlien
4112	the direct line failed, and accounts for
4113	the Sabacos and others occasionally
4114	obtaining the crown of Egypt byright
4115	and not by conquest. — \|^G. W.J
4116	^ Diodorus says that the reason of
4117	the Egyptian troojts deserting from
4118	Psammetichus was his having placed
4119	them in the left wing, while the right
4120	was given to tlie strangers in his
4121	army, which is not only more pro-
4122	bable than the I'eason assigned by
4123	Herodotus, but is strongly confirmed
4124	by the discovery of an iuscri[>tion at
4125	Aboosimbel in Nubia, Avritten ajipa-
4126	rently by the Greeks who accom-
4127	panied Psammetichus when in pursuit
4128	of the deserters. These Greeks were
4129	the lonians and Carians taken into
4130	his paj'^, in order, as Herodotus was
4131	told (ch. 152), to aid in dethroning his
4132	colleagues, though in reality from the
4133	advantage of employing the Greeks
4134	against the increasing power of his
4135	Asiatic neighbours (see note * on ch.
4136	152). The first Greeks known to
4137	the Egyptians being lonians led to
4138	the name Ionian being afterwards
4139	used b}^ them for all Greeks, as we
4140	find in the Posetta stone, and other
4141	documents. The Asiatics, ior a
4142	similar reason, called the Greeks
4143	" lonians," " the race of Javan." Ionia
4144	in the Nakhshi-Piustam Inscription is
4145	" Yavana," or Yund, and the ancient
4146	Greeks are still known in Arabic
4147	as the "Yunani," or "Imiani." The
4148	inscrij)tion states that Psammetichus
4149	himself went as far as Ele})hantine,
4150	the Greeks being sent forward with
p. 67
4151	Chap. 30.
4152	HISTORY OF THE DESERTEES.
4153	45
4154	are Egyptians of the warrior cast, who, to the number
4155	of two hundred and forty thousand, went over to the
4156	Ethiopians in the reign of king Psamnieticlms. The
4157	cause of their desertion was the following : — Three
4158	garrisons were maintained in Egypt at that time,* one
4159	some of his adherents into Ethiopia ;
4160	and the point where they had a parley
4161	with the deserters was apparently',
4162	from the inscription, near Kerkis,
4163	some distance ahove Aboosimbel,
4164	wliere on their return they left this
4165	record of their journey. It is also
4166	curious from its style ; and from the
4167	early indication of the long vowels,
4168	H and Q, (the latter apparently an O
4169	with a dot in the centre), which — as
4170	well as other arguments — proves that
4171	they came gradually into use, and long
4172	before the time of Simonides, who was
4173	not born till 556 B.C. The reign of
4174	Psammetichus dates in the middle of
4175	the 7th century B.C. The inscription,
4176	of which the following is a transcript,
4177	FASlASoSEA0OisfTo^$^$A^q>ANTlNAN^An/^TIXO
4178	rt^ vrA^r/^AtANTo/5 vNNkAM ^Tixo f To I ® EOK^"^'
4179	ETAEoMBA® ON^JEKE PKI o^KATVrEP^QfviSoroTAMo
4180	ANlBA^o^Ao5o/oBXE^oTA5/MToAlrv^T/o5^E'^^'^^';<
4181	is thus translated by Colonel Leake : — -
4182	" King Psamatichus having come to
4183	Elephantine, those who were with Psa-
4184	matichus, the son of Theocles, wrote
4185	this. They sailed, and came to above
4186	Kerkis, to where the river rises (?)
4187	the Egyptian Amasis. The
4188	writer is Damearchou the son of
4189	Amoebichus, and Pelephus (?) the son
4190	of Udamus " (?). (This Ph looks rather
4191	like the old K or Q.) In the same
4192	place are several other inscriptions,
4193	some of the same style and time, and
4194	others written by Phcenicians in their
4195	language, the date of which is un-
4196	known. If this was the 3rd, instead
4197	of the 1st Psammetichus, " the Egyp-
4198	tian Amasis " may have been the
4199	general, afterwards king of Egypt ;
4200	for Herodotus, who only mentions one
4201	Psammetichus, may have been wrong
4202	in supposing the desertion of the troops
4203	took place under the son of Neco.
4204	This would bring the date of the in-
4205	scription within 600 B.C. (See note "
4206	on ch. 161, and hist, notice App. ch.
4207	viii. § 34.) There is a coin of Thrace
4208	of date about 550 B.C. which has
4209	the ii (in Millingen), though many
4210	much later have not the long vowels.
4211	Coins and vases are no authorities
4212	against their use, as the archaic stjle
4213	was imitated to a late time. Some
4214	inscriptions, as that of Potidea in the
4215	British Museum, as late as 432, have
4216	no H nor i2. The S is X2, and the
4217	^ is $2 ; and it has been supposed
4218	that there was no il in public docu-
4219	ments till the archonship of Euclid,
4220	B.C. 403. But the long vowels were
4221	used earlier by the Greeks of Asia
4222	Minor. The i2 and 2 were changed
4223	to (o and C in the age of the later
4224	Ptolemies, and were re-introduced in
4225	the reign of Adrian. — '^G. W.J
4226	* It was always the custom of the
4227	Egyptians to have a garrison stationed,
4228	as Herodotus states, on the frontier, at
4229	Elephantine, at Daphne, of Pelusium,
4230	and at Marea ; but in the time of the
4231	victorious kings of the 18th dynasty
4232	others were stationed at Semneh,
4233	above the second cataract, and also
4234	farther south in Upper Ethiopia, as
4235	well as in various parts of Asia where
4236	they had extended their conquests,
4237	which last were only finally taken from
4238	them in the time of Neco 11., the son
4239	and successor of this Psammetichus. —
4240	[G. W.]
p. 68
4241	46
4242	CIVILISATION OF THE ETHIOPIANS.
4243	Book II.
4244	in the city of Elephantine against the Ethiopians,
4245	another in the Pehisiac Daphna3,^ against the Syrians
4246	and Arabians, and a third, against the Libyans, in
4247	Marea. (The very same posts are to this day occupied
4248	by the Persians, whose forces are in garrison both in
4249	Daphnje and in Elej^hantine.) Now it liappened, that on
4250	one occasion the garrisons were not reheved during the
4251	space of three years ; the soldiers, therefore, at the end
4252	of that time, consulted together, and having determined
4253	by common consent to revolt, marched away towards
4254	Ethiopia. Psammetichus, informed of the movement,
4255	set out in pursuit, and coming up with them, besought
4256	them with many words not to desert the gods of their
4257	comitry, nor abandon their wives and children. " Nay,
4258	but," said one of the deserters with an unseemly gesture,
4259	" wherever we go, we are sure enough of finding wives
4260	and children." Arrived in Ethiopia, they placed them-
4261	selves at the disposal of the king. In return, he made
4262	them a present of a tract of land which belonged to
4263	certain Ethiopians with whom he was at feud, bidding
4264	them expel the inhabitants and take possession of their
4265	territorv. From the time that this settlement was
4266	formed, their acquaintance with Egyptian manners has
4267	tended to civilise the Ethiopians.^
4268	* Daphn^e, Daphne, or Daphnes was
4269	16 Roman miles from Pelusium, accord-
4270	ing to the Itinerary of Antoninus. It
4271	was the Tahpanhes of Scripture. See
4272	Jer. xliii. 8 ; Ezek. xxx. 18.— ;G. W.]
4273	^ This would be a strong argument,
4274	if required, against the notion of
4275	civilisation having come from the
4276	Ethiopians to Egypt ; but the monu-
4277	ments prove beyond all question that
4278	the Ethiopians borrowed from Egypt
4279	their religion and their habits of
4280	civilisation. They even adopted the
4281	Eg\'ptian as the language of religion
4282	and of the court, which it continued
4283	to be till the power of the Pharaohs
4284	had fallen, and their dominion was
4285	again confined to the frontier of
4286	Ethiopia. It was through Egypt too
4287	that Christianity passed into Ethiopia,
4288	even in the age of the Apostles (Acts
4289	viii. 27), as is shown by the eunuch of
4290	queen Candace (see note ^ on this chap-
4291	ter). Other proofs of their early conver-
4292	sion are also found, as in the inscriptions
4293	at Farras, above Aboosimbel, one of
4294	which has the date of Diocletian,
4295	though the Nobata; are said not to
4296	have become Christians till the reign
4297	of Justinian. The erroneous notion
4298	of Egypt having borrowed from Ethi-
4299	opia may perhaps have been derived
4300	from the return of the Egj'ptian court
4301	to Egypt after it had retired to Ethi-
4302	opia on the invasion of the Shepherds.
4303	-[G. W.J
p. 69
4304	Chap. 31, 32. EXTENT OF KNOWN COURSE OP THE NILE. 47
4305	31. Thus the course of the Nile is known, not only
4306	throughout Egypt, but to the extent of four months'
4307	journey either by land or water above the Egyptian
4308	boundary ; for on calculation it will be found that it
4309	takes that length of time to travel from ElejDhantine
4310	to the country of the Deserters. There the direction
4311	of the river is from west to east.^ Beyond, no one has
4312	any certain knowledge of its course, since the country
4313	is uninhabited by reason of the excessive heat.
4314	32. I did hear, indeed, what I will now relate, from
4315	certain natives of Cyrene. Once upon a time, they
4316	said, they were on a visit to the oracular shrine of
4317	Amnion,^ when it chanced that in the course of conver-
4318	' This ouly applies to the white
4319	river, or western branch of the Nile. —
4320	[G. \y.]
4321	® This was in the modern Oasis of
4322	See-wall (Siwah), where remains of
4323	the temple are still seen. The oracle
4324	long continued in great repute, and
4325	though in Straho's time it began to
4326	lose its importance (the mode of divi-
4327	nation learnt from Etruria having
4328	superseded the consultation of the
4329	distant Ammon), still its answers
4330	were sought in the solution of difficult
4331	questions in the days of Juvenal,
4332	" after the cessation of the Delphic
4333	oracle." In consulting the god at the
4334	Oasis of Ammon, it w-as customary,
4335	says Quintus Curtius, " for the priests
4336	to carry the figure of the god in a
4337	gilded boat, ornamented with nimie-
4338	rous silver paterae hanging from it on
4339	both sides, behind which followed a
4340	train of matrons and virgins singing a
4341	certain uncouth hymn, in the manner
4342	of the country, with a view to pro-
4343	pitiate the deity, and induce him to
4344	return a satisfactory answer." See
4345	the boat or ark of Nou (Nef) in the
4346	Temple of Elephantine in PL 56, 57
4347	of Dr. Young and the Egyptian So-
4348	ciety. Of the appearance of the God
4349	he says, " id quod pro Deo colitur,
4350	non eandem effigiem habet, quam
4351	vulgo Diis artifices accommodaverunt,
4352	mnbriculo maxime similis est habitus,
4353	smaragdis et gemmis coagmentatus :"
4354	but the word tmibriculo has perplexed
4355	all commentators.
4356	All the cultivable spots, abounding
4357	with springs, in that desert, are called
4358	Wall ; the chief of which are the See-
4359	wah, the Little Oasis, the Wah sur-
4360	named e' Dakhleh, i. e., " the inner,"
4361	or western, and the Wah el Khargeh,
4362	" the outer Oasis," to the east of it,
4363	which is the Great Oasis. The others,
4364	of El Hayz, Farafreh, and the Oases
4365	of the Blacks, in the interior, to the
4366	westward, are small, and some of them
4367	only temporarily inhabited ; but those
4368	above mentioned are productive, and
4369	abound in palms, fruit-trees, rice,
4370	barley, and various productions. They
4371	are not, as often suj^posed, cultivated
4372	spots in the midst of an endless level
4373	tract of sand, but abmpt depressions
4374	in the high table-land, portions of
4375	which are irrigated by running
4376	streams, and, being surrounded by
4377	cliffs more or less precipitous, are in
4378	appearance not unlike a j3ortion of the
4379	valley of the Nile, with its palm-trees,
4380	villages, and gardens, transported to
4381	the desert, without its river, and
4382	bordered by a sandy \)\&iw reaching
4383	to the hills that surround it, in
4384	which stunted tamarisk bushes, coarse
4385	grasses, and desert plants struggle to
4386	keep themselves above the drifted
4387	sand that collects around them. —
4388	[G. W.J
p. 70
4389	48
4390	LITTLE OASIS.
4391	Book TL
p. 71
4392	Chap. 32,
4393	INTERIOR OF LIBYA.
4394	49
4395	sation with Etearclms, the Ammonian king, the talk
4396	fell upon the Nile, how that its sources were unknown
4397	to all men. Etearchus upon this mentioned that some
4398	Nasamonians® had once come to his court, and Avhen
4399	asked if they could give any information concerning the
4400	uninhabited parts of Libya, had told the following tale.
4401	(The Nasamonians are a Libyan race who occupy the
4402	Syrtis, and a tract of no great size towards the east.^)
4403	They said there had grown up among them some wild
4404	young men, the sons of certain chiefs, who, when they
4405	came to man's estate, indulged in all manner of extra-
4406	vagancies, and among other things drew lots for five
4407	of their number to go and explore the desert parts of
4408	Libya, and try if they could not penetrate further than
4409	any had done previously. (The coast of Libya along
4410	the sea which washes it to the north, throughout its
4411	entire length from Egypt to Cape Soloeis,^ wliich is
4412	its furthest point, is inhabited by Libyans of many
4413	distinct tribes, who possess the wdiole tract except
4414	certain portions which belong to the Phoenicians and
4415	the Greeks.^ Above the coast-line and the country
4416	* This word seems to be " Nahsi,
4417	Amun^'' or " Negroes of Ammonitis,"
4418	or Northern Libya ; Nahsi being the
4419	Egyptian name for tlie Negroes of
4420	Africa. See my note on ch. 182, Book
4421	iv.— [G. W.]
4422	1 Vide infra, iv. 172-3.
4423	^ This is supposed by Rennell to be
4424	Cape Cant in, near Mogador, on the
4425	W. coast of Africa; but, Avitli great
4426	deference to so high an autliority, 1 am
4427	inclined to tliink it Cape Sjtaj-tel, near
4428	Tangier, as the Persian Fatasjoes, con-
4429	demned by Xerxes to imdertake tlie
4430	voyage round Africa, is said, after
4431	sailing througli the Straits of Gibral-
4432	tar (Pillars of Hercules) and doubling
4433	the Libyan promontory called Soloeis,
4434	to have steered southwards, for here?
4435	the southerly course evidently begins
4436	(see Book iv. ch. 42). Herodotus,
4437	too, measures the breadth of Libya
4438	from Egypt to the extreme eud of
4439	VOL. II.
4440	tlie northern coast, not to the most
4441	westerly headland to the south of it,
4442	which too he is not likely to have
4443	known ; and Aristotle (De Mundo, 3)
4444	shows the Greeks measured the extent
4445	of Africa E. and W., only along the
4446	northern coast, by saying "it extends
4447	to the Pillars of Hercules."— [G. W.]
4448	^ That is, the Cyrenaica, and the
4449	possessions of the Phoenicians and
4450	Carthaginians, or more properly the
4451	Pffini, on the N. and W. coasts. Poeni,
4452	Punici, and Pha?nices were the same
4453	name of the race, oi, or op, and u hav-
4454	ing the same sound in Greek. Car-
4455	thaginian signified properly the people
4456	of Carthage, as Tyrians did the " Phce-
4457	nicians of Tyre ;" for the Phoenicians
4458	called themselves from the name of
4459	their towns, Tyrians, Sidonians, &c.
4460	Cartha, the " city," was first applied
4461	to Tyre, from which Hercules obtained
4462	the title of Melcarthus, or Mclek-
p. 72
4463	50
4464	THE DESERT.
4465	Book II.
4466	inhabited by the maritime tribes, Libya is full of wild
4467	beasts ; while beyond the wild beast region there is a
4468	tract which is wholly sand, very scant of water, and
4469	utterly and entirely a desert/) The young men there-
4470	fore, despatched on this errand by their comrades with
4471	a plentiful supply of water and provisions, travelled at
4472	first through the inhabited region, passing which they
4473	came to the wild beast tract, whence they finally
4474	entered upon the desert, which they proceeded to cross
4475	in a direction from east to west. After journeying for
4476	many days over a wide extent of sand, they came at
4477	last to a plain where they observed trees growing ;
4478	approaching them, and seeing fruit on them, they pro-
4479	ceeded to gather it. While they were thus engaged,
4480	Kartha, " Lord of the City," corrupted
4481	into Melicertes or Melicartus, " who,"
4482	Sancouiatho says, " was Hercules,"
4483	and who in a Phceniciau inscription
4484	at Malta is called Adonin Melkarth
4485	Baal Tzura, X"IV bv2 nip^O ]:'Mi,
4486	" our Lord Melkarth, Baal of Tyre."
4487	Carthagena (Carthagina, Carthage)
4488	was Kartha Yena, the " new city "
4489	(^Kaivq TToXis), in opposition to the
4490	parent Tyre, or to Utica, i. e. Atil^a,
4491	the " old " (city), which was founded
4492	before by the Phoenicians on the
4493	African coast about B.C. 1520, or, ac-
4494	cording to Velleius Paterculus (i. 2),
4495	at the same time as Megara, B.C. 1131.
4496	Utica was probably not so called till
4497	after the building of Carthage (as
4498	Musr-el-Atika received that name
4499	after the foundation of the new Musr,
4500	or Cairo). The " new to'^'VTi," Car-
4501	thagena, was the " nova Carthago "
4502	of Dido (Ovid, Ep. Dido to Mn.;
4503	Virg. JFai. i. 366); but it was
4504	founded b.c. 1259, long before Dido's
4505	supposed time. Some think it was
4506	built more than two centuries after
4507	Gades and Tartessus in Spain, and
4508	Velleius Paterculus sn.js Gades was a
4509	few years older than Utica. He dates
4510	the Wilding of Carthage by Elissa, or
4511	Dido, 60 years before Rome, or 813
4512	B.C. (i. 6) ; but his authority is of
4513	no weight. (Cp. Justin, xviii. 5.)
4514	Cartha is the same as Kiriath, com-
4515	mon in Hebrew names. Some object
4516	to the above derivation of Cartha-jena,
4517	because Jena or yerm, " new," is not a
4518	Semitic, but a Turk or Tartar word,
4519	and is properly yengi or yeki ; and
4520	they prefer the Greek Carchedo as the
4521	name of the city, deriving it from
4522	Caer or Car, and hedo, " new." But
4523	whether jhia is admissible or no,
4524	Cartha is the word used, as in Mel-
4525	kartli, or Melek Kartha, " Lord of the
4526	City," applied to Hercules in Phoe-
4527	nician inscriptions, and found in Car-
4528	teia and Kiriath. The resemblance
4529	of the name of its citadel Byrsa (said
4530	to have been called from the hide) to
4531	those of Borsippa, or Birs-Nimroud,
4532	and the Arab Boursa, near Babylon, is
4533	singular.
4534	A record seems still to be preserved
4535	of the Phoenician trade on the western
4536	coast of Africa in the peculiar glass-
4537	beads found there, vdiich are known
4538	to be ancient, and are now highly
4539	prized. The Venetians send out a
4540	modern imperfect imitation of them
4541	to Africa. They are also said to have
4542	been found in Cornwall and in Ire-
4543	land.—[G. W.]
4544	* Vide infra, iv. 181, for the division
4545	of Africa into three regions; and for
4546	the true character of the desert, see
4547	note on iv. 185.
p. 73
4548	CiiAP. 33. GREAT RIVER THOUGHT TO BE THE NILE.
4549	51
4550	there came upon them some dwarfish men,^ under the
4551	middle height, wlio seized them and carried them off.
4552	The Nasamonians could not understand a word of their
4553	language, nor had they any acquaintance with the lan-
4554	guage of the Nasamonians. They were led across
4555	extensive marshes, and finally came to a town, where
4556	all the men were of the height of their conductors, and
4557	hlack-complexioned. A great river flowed by the town,®'
4558	running from west to east, and containing crocodiles.
4559	33. Here let me dismiss Etearchus '^ the Ammonian,
4560	and his story, only adding that (according to the
4561	Cyrenseans) he declared that the Nasamonians got safe
4562	back to their country, and that the men whose city
4563	they had reached were a nation of sorcerers. With
4564	respect to the river which ran by their town, Etearchus
4565	conjectured it to be the Nile f and reason favours that
4566	* Men of diminutive size really exist
4567	in Africa, but the Nasamones pro-
4568	bably only knew of some by report.
4569	Those to the S.W. of Abyssinia are
4570	called Dokos. They are not Negroes.
4571	(See Ethnological Journal, No. 1, p.
4572	43, and No. 2.) Some have thought
4573	the Simia Sylvanus of Africa gave
4574	rise to the story, agreeing as it does
4575	with their description by Photius
4576	(Cod. iii. Bibl. p. 8) : " vno 8e rpixcov
4577	Sedaavixevovs Bia navros rod aafJ-aros."
4578	Tlie pigmies are mentioned by Homer
4579	(II. iii. 6) and others, and often repre-
4580	sented on Greek vases. Homer and
4581	Aristotle (Hist. An. viii. 12) place
4582	them near the sources of the Nile,
4583	which might agree with the Dokos.
4584	Pliny (vi. 19), Philostratus (Vit.
4585	Apoll. Ty. iii. 47), and others, ])lace
4586	them in India (see Ctesias Ind. § 11).
4587	Strabo (i. p. 5(») says the fable was
4588	invented by Homer, who represented
4589	them living by the sources of tlie
4590	Nile, whither the cranes retiring from
4591	the winter and snows of the north
4592	brought slaughter and death on the
4593	Pj'gnijean race. He thinks that cer-
4594	tain little men of Ethiopia were the
4595	origin of the fable (xvii. p. 1162), as
4596	Aristotle does (H. An. viii. 12), who
4597	calls them Troglodyta\ Pomj). Mela
4598	(iii. 8) places them very far south,
4599	and speaks of their fighting with the
4600	cranes, " pro satis frugibus." (Cji.
4601	Strabo i. p. 53 ; xvii. p. 1162.) ^lian
4602	(Hist. An. XV. 29) has a fable of Juno
4603	turning their ((ueen " Gtrana'" into a
4604	crane.— [G. W.J
4605	"^ It seems not improbable that we
4606	have here a mention of the river Niger,
4607	and of the ancient rejiresentative of
4608	the modern city of Timhuctoo. See
4609	Blakesley ad loc.
4610	' If Etearchus was not a corruption
4611	of a native name, he must have been
4612	a Greek, probably from that Oasis
4613	having been conquered by the Cy-
4614	renajans. — [G. W.]
4615	^ This large river, which traversed
4616	the centre of Africa, and abounded in
4617	crocodiles(ch. 22), probably represented
4618	more than one of the rivers which run
4619	to the Atlantic from Central Africa ;
4620	and the marsh or lake it traversed was
4621	in like manner not confined to the
4622	Tchad, or any particular one of those
4623	regions. One of Strabo's lakes, from
4624	which the Nile comes in the East
4625	(xvii. p. 1116), as well as his large
4626	lake Pseboa, above Meroe, was evi-
4627	dently the modern Dembea of Abys-
4628	K 2
p. 74
4629	52
4630	COMPARISON OF THE NILE AND ISTER.
4631	Book II.
4632	view. For the Nile certainly flows out of Libya, di-
4633	viding it down tlie middle, and as I conceive, judging
4634	the unknown from the known, rises at the same dis-
4635	tance from its mouth as the Ister,^ This latter river
4636	has its source in the country of the Celts near the city
4637	Pyrene, and runs through the middle of Europe, di-
4638	viding it into two portions. The Celts live beyond
4639	the pillars of Hercules, and border on the Cynesians,^
4640	who dwell at the extreme west of Europe. Thus the
4641	Ister flows through the whole of Europe before it finally
4642	empties itself into the Euxine at Istria,
4643	colonies of the Milesians.^
4644	one of the
4645	sinia, the Coloe Palus of Ptolemy's
4646	Astapus, througli which the Bkie (or
4647	Black) Nile runs. See Pliu. viii. 21,
4648	" Lake Nigiis," and v. 9 ; and compare
4649	Strabo, xvii. p. 1162.— ^G. W.]
4650	* The meaning of this passage has
4651	been much disputed, but Schweig-
4652	hajuser's final decision upon it (Lex.
4653	Herod, ad voc. fierpov), which is here
4654	followed, may be accepted as fairly
4655	satisfactory. Herodotus does not in-
4656	tend any such exact correspondency
4657	between the Nile and the Danube as
4658	Larcher (note ad loc), much less such
4659	as Niebuhr (Scythia, p. 40, Engl.
4660	Trans.) and Dahlmann (Life, p. 65)
4661	imagined. He is only speaking of the
4662	comparative length of the two streams,
4663	and conjectures that they are equal
4664	in this respect. Herein no doubt he
4665	exhibits his over-love of symmetry
4666	(see note to Book iv. ch. 181) ; but it
4667	is quite unnecessary to suppose, with
4668	Niebuhr, that he considered the two
4669	streams to correspond i)i all points,
4670	and because the Nile made an angle
4671	in its course above the country of the
4672	Deserters (ch .31), regarded the Danube
4673	as making a similar angle in the upper
4674	parts of Thrace. There is absolutely
4675	no indication of his having entertained
4676	any such notion. His placing the
4677	sources of the Danube in the countrj-
4678	of the Celts, near the city Pyrene,
4679	implies no doubt a considerable error
4680	as to the region from which that river
4681	flows, but it is interesting as exhibit-
4682	ing a dim acquaintance with the name
4683	and position of the Pyrenean range,
4684	of which not only Hecataius, but even
4685	Scylax (Peripl. pp. 3-4), seems to have
4686	been ignorant ; and which is (I believe)
4687	first mentioned by Polybius (iii. xxxix.
4688	§ 4, &c.).
4689	* The Cynesians are mentioned
4690	again in iv. 49 as Cynetes. They are
4691	a nation of wliom nothing is known
4692	but their abode from very ancient
4693	times at the extreme S.W. of Europe.
4694	Herodorus of Heraclea, a contempo-
4695	rary of Socrates, who appears to have
4696	possessed a fair knowledge of the
4697	Spanish peninsula, spoke of them
4698	(Fr. 20) as dwelling the furthest to
4699	the W. of all the Spanish nations,
4700	and said they were bordered upon to-
4701	wards the N. by the Gletes. (rXfjres,
4702	query ? TaXarai, Celts.) By the later
4703	geographers (Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy)
4704	they are ignored altogether, yet cu-
4705	riously enough they re-appcar in Avi-
4706	enus, a writer of the fifth century
4707	after Christ, nearly in their old settle-
4708	ments, on the banks of tlie Anas or
4709	Ouadiana. (Ora Maritim. 202-223.)
4710	^ If the Danube in the time of
4711	Herodotus entered the Euxine at
4712	Istria, it must have changed its
4713	course very greatly since he wrote.
4714	Istria, Ister, or Istriopolis (as we find
4715	it variouslj^ called) was situated near
4716	the modern Kostendje, 60 miles Itelow
4717	the most soutlierly of the Danube's
4718	present mouths. Tlie name un-
4719	doubtedly remains in the modern
4720	Wisteri, on the road from Kostendje
p. 75
4721	Chap. .3t, 35.
4722	WONDEES OF EGYrT.
4723	53
4724	34. Kow as this river flows through regions that are
4725	inhahited, its course is perfectly well known ; but of
4726	the sources of the Nile no one can give any account,
4727	since Libya, the country through which it passes, is
4728	desert and without inhabitants. As far as it was pos-
4729	sible to get information by inquiry, I have given a
4730	description of the stream. It enters Egypt from the
4731	parts beyond. Egypt lies almost exactly opposite
4732	the mountainous portion of Cilicia,"* whence a lightly-
4733	equipped traveller may reach Sinope on the Euxine in
4734	five days by the direct route. ^ Sinope lies opposite the
4735	place where the Ister falls into the sea.^ My opinion
4736	therefore is that the Nile, as it traverses the whole of
4737	Libya, is of equal length with the Ister. And here I
4738	take my leave of this subject.
4739	35. Concerning Egypt itself I shall extend my re-
4740	marks to a great length, because there is no country
4741	that possesses so many wonders,'' nor any that has such
4742	to Bahadagh, but the ancient town
4743	must have been nearer the coast —
4744	perhaps at Karagkik. (See Strab. vii.
4745	p. 461-2 ; Anon. Peripl. Pont. Eux.
4746	p. 157 ; Ptolem. iii. 10 ; Itin. Ant.
4747	p. 14, &c.) It is perhaps conceivable
4748	that the Danube may once have
4749	thrown out a branch from the augle
4750	in its course near Rassova to the
4751	Bhack Sea near Kostendje, in the line
4752	of the projected ship-canal ; but if so,
4753	great alterations in the height of the
4754	land must have taken place within
4755	the historic ])eriod, since at present
4756	the Black Sea is separated from the
4757	valley of the Danube by a range of
4758	hills, whose elevation is at the lowest
4759	point 200 or 300 feet.
4760	^ According to Scymnus Chins
4761	(Fr. 21) Istria was founded about the
4762	time of the Scythian invasion of Asia
4763	(B.C. 633). Pliny calls it a most
4764	beautiful city (" urbs pulcherrima,"
4765	H. N. iv. 11).
4766	'' Cilicia was divided into two por-
4767	tions, the eastern, or " Cilicia cam-
4768	pestris," and the western, or " Cilicia
4769	aspera." (Strab. xiv. p. 954.) Egypt
4770	does not really lie "opposite" — that
4771	is, in the same longitude with — the
4772	latter region. It rather faces Pam-
4773	phylia, but Herodotus gives all
4774	Africa, as far as the Lesser Syrtis, too
4775	easterly a position. (Vide infra, iv.
4776	179. note.)
4777	" Suprk, i. 72, sub fin.
4778	® This of course is neither true,
4779	nor near the truth ; and it is difficult
4780	to make out in what sense Herodotus
4781	meant to assert it. Perhaps he at-
4782	tached no very distinct geograjihical
4783	meaning to the word " opposite.''
4784	^ By this statement Herodotus pre-
4785	pares liis readers for what he is about to
4786	relate ; but the desire to toll of the won-
4787	ders in which it di tiered from all other
4788	countries led Herodotus to indulge in
4789	his love of antithesis, so tliat in some
4790	cases he confines to one sex what was
4791	done by both (a singular instance being
4792	noted down by him as an invariable
4793	custom), and in others he has indulged
4794	in the marvellous at a sacrifice of
4795	truth. If, however, Herodotus had
4796	told us that the Egyptian women en-
4797	joyed greater liberty, confidence, and
p. 76
4798	54
4799	ANTITHESIS OF THE SEXES.
4800	Book II.
4801	a number of works which defy description. Not only is
4802	the climate diiferent from that of the rest of the world,
4803	and the rivers unlike any other rivers, but the people
4804	also, in most of their manners and customs, exactly re-
4805	verse the common practice of mankind. The women
4806	attend the markets^ and trade, while the men sit at
4807	home at the loom ;^ and here, while the rest of the world
4808	consideration tlian under the harcem
4809	system of the Greeks and Persians
4810	(Book i. ch, 136), he would have been
4811	fully justified, for the treatment of
4812	women in Egypt was far better than
4813	in Greece. The assertion of Nympho-
4814	dorus that Sesostris, fearing the people,
4815	v:ho had become very numerous, might
4816	revolt against him, obliged the men
4817	to adopt the occupations of women (in
4818	order to enervate the whole race during
4819	his reign), is too ridiculous to be worth
4820	contradicting. In many cases where
4821	Herodotus tells improbable talcs, they
4822	are on the authority of others, or mere
4823	hearsay reports, for which he at once
4824	declares himself not responsible, and
4825	he justly pleads that his history was
4826	not only a relation of facts, but the
4827	result of an " la-Topia," or " inquiry,"
4828	in which all he heard was inserted.
4829	We must, however, sometimes regret
4830	that he did not use his own judgment,
4831	and discard what must have shown
4832	itself unworthy of credit and of men-
4833	tion. For we gladly allow that when
4834	he does offer his own reflections they
4835	are soimd ; and too much credit cannot
4836	be given him for being so far aV)Ove
4837	prejudice, and superior to many of the
4838	Greeks, who were too apt to claim tlie
4839	honour of originating things they lior-
4840	rowed from others, or to derive from
4841	Greece what was of older date than
4842	themselves ; as, for instance, Thoth
4843	(Mercury) having gone from Arcadia
4844	" to Egypt, and given laws and learn-
4845	ing to the Egyptians" (Cic. Nat. Deor.
4846	iii.) ; and Actinus, the son of Sol,
4847	being an astronomer who went from
4848	Greece to Egypt, where he founded
4849	the city of Heliopolis. Herodotus also
4850	shows more fairness and judgment
4851	than those who claim for the Greeks
4852	many inventions and ideas evidently
4853	borrowed from the country they vi-
4854	sited for instruction, and who ibrget
4855	to attribute to the Greeks some of their
4856	great merits ; — as the emancipation of
4857	the human mind from the trammels
4858	of fixed and unvarying rules, which
4859	cramped genius and prevented im-
4860	provement ; the invention of real his-
4861	tory ; the establishment of taste in
4862	arts and literature ; and that develop-
4863	ment of the mind for v\-hich modern
4864	nations are so much beholden to them.
4865	In art too Greece was imri vailed, and
4866	was indebted for it to her own genius ;
4867	nor from the occasional adoption of
4868	some hints in architecture and orna-
4869	mental designs, as well as certain
4870	branches of luiowledge, at an early
4871	period, can the origin of Greek taste
4872	be ascribed to Egypt or any other
4873	country.— [G, W.]
4874	" The market-place was originally
4875	outside the walls, generally in an open
4876	space, beneath what was afterwards
4877	the citadel or the acro]>ulis ; as we see
4878	in the old sites of Greek and also
4879	Roman towns, as at Rome itself,
4880	whence perhayis called Forum. The
4881	same is still the case in some corm-
4882	tries at the present day, as at Cattaro
4883	in Dalmatia.
4884	This first antithesis is an instance of
4885	Herodotus confining to one sex what
4886	applies to both ; and the sculptures
4887	show that sedentar}' occupations were
4888	more followed by women than by
4889	men. — [G. W.]
4890	' This is one of the passages in our
4891	author, where his words so closely
4892	resemble those of Sophocles, as to
4893	raise suspicion of i>lagiarism on the
4894	rne side or the other. (See note ^
4895	B, i. ch. 32 ; and vide infra, iii. 119.)
4896	The ancients generally seem to have
4897	believed the charge of efleminacy
p. 77
4898	Chap. 35.
4899	WEAVING.
4900	55
4901	works the woof wp the warp,^ the Egyptians work it
4902	down ; the women hkewise carry burthens upon their
4903	shoulders, while the men cany them upon their heads.
4904	They eat their food out of doors in the streets,^ but
4905	brought by Herodotus against the
4906	Egyptians. Various writers re])eat
4907	it, and one (Nymphodorus) declares
4908	its origin. (See the
4909	Scholiast on Soph.
4910	(Ed. Col. 337; and
4911	compare the advice
4912	said to have been
4913	given by Croesus to
4914	Cyrus, supra, i. 155.)
4915	^ The foregoing
4916	remark, that a ge-
4917	neral conclusion is
4918	drawn from particu-
4919	lar and rare cases,
4920	applies also to this,
4921	as the Egyptians
4922	sometimes puslied
4923	the woof iTpwards,
4924	down ;
4925	to their
4926	carrying
4927	for men
4928	almost always car-
4929	ried them on their shoulders, or on a
4930	yoke, like that now in use in Europe(see
4931	woodcut fig. 4 in note ' on ch. 136), and
4932	rarelj^ on their heads, except bakers, as
4933	in other countries ; while very few
4934	sometimes
4935	and also
4936	mode of
4937	burthens.
4938	instances occur of a woman bearing a
4939	Ijurthen on her shoulders. — [G. W.]
4940	I
4941	8 That they sometimes ate in the
4942	street is not to be doubted ; but this
4943	was only the poorer class, as in other
4944	parts of ancient and modern Europe,
4945	and could not be mentioned in con-
4946	tradistinction to a Greek custom. The
4947	Egj'ptians generally dined at a small
4948	round table, having one leg (similar
4949	to the monopodium or orbis), at which
4950	one or more persons sat, and they ate
4951	with their fingers like the Greeks and
4952	the modern Arabs. Several dishes
4953	wei'e placed upon the table, and be-
4954	fore eating it was their custom to say
4955	grace. (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 2. 12 ; see
4956	At. Eg. W. vol. ii. p. 392 to 415.)
4957	Athenajus (Deipn. iv. p. 150) speaks
4958	of the sumptuousness of an Egyptian
p. 78
4959	56
4960	SOCIAL POSITION OF WOMEN.
4961	Book II.
4962	retire for private purposes to their houses, giving as a
4963	reason that what is unseemly, hut necessary, ought to
4964	he done in secret, hut what has nothing unseemly ahout
4965	it, should he done openly. A woman cannot serve the
4966	feast, and says they had one kind of
4967	dinner or supper " at which there was
4968	no table, the dishes being brought
4969	round." — 1_G. W.]
4970	■* Tliough men held the priesthood
4971	in Egypt, as in other countries, women
4972	■were not excluded from certain im-
4973	portant duties in the temples, as He-
4974	No. I.
4975	rodotus also shows (chs. 54, 56) ; the
4976	queens made offerings with the kings ;
4977	and the monuments, as well as Dio-
4978	dorus, show tliat an order of women,
4979	chosen from the prmcipal families,
4980	were employed in the service of the
4981	gods. It is of these that Uiodorus,
4982	and even Herodotus (i. 182), have told
4983	stories, the absurdity of which is
4984	sufficiently evident when we consider
4985	that queens and women of the highest
4986	rank held the office in the temple of
4987	Amun ; and it is probable that these
4988	were members of a sacred college, into
4989	which they entered on the death of
4990	their husbands, in order to devote
4991	themselves to religious duties. It was
4992	perhaps then that they received the
4993	title of " divine wife," or " god's wife ;"
4994	which from the following formula —
4995	" the royal daughter, the royal wife,
4996	the divine (god's) wife, the g(xl"s
4997	mother,'' would refer to her relationship
4998	to a king ; as no office could make
4999	any one the mother of Amun. The
5000	widow of Ames, however, seems to
5001	be called " Goddess wife of Amun ;"
5002	which would show them to be
5003	spouses of the deity. They were
5004	also styled " god's hand," and
5005	" god's (the divine) star." Their
5006	chief office in the religious cere-
5007	monies was to sing the praises
5008	of the deity, playing on various
5009	instalments ; in the temple the
5010	highest of their order, as queens and
5011	princesses, held the sistra ; and at
5012	Thebes they were called the min-
5013	strels and chiefs of the women of
5014	Amun. (On the Pallacides, see At.
5015	Eg. W. vol. iv. p. 203.) A sort
5016	of monastic institution seems to have
5017	originated in Egji^t at an early time,
5018	and to have been imitated afterwards
5019	when the real conventual system was
5020	set on foot by the Christians in the
5021	same coimtry. Cp. the Vestal vir-
5022	gins at Rome. (See woodcut No. II.
5023	opp. page.)
5024	Herodotus (ii. 54) speaks of two
5025	women, belonging to the Temple of
5026	Jupiter at Thebes, who founded the
5027	oracles of Ammon and Dodona ; and
5028	priestesses are mentioned on the Eo-
5029	setta stone, and in the pajiyrus of
5030	D'Anastasy. (See At. Eg. W. vol. i.
5031	p. 261 .) Nor can this be ascribed to
5032	innovations, among a people so jealous
5033	as the Egyptians of the interference
5034	of foi'eigners in their religion. It
5035	must, however, be observed that no
5036	woman, except the queen, attended
5037	in the grand processions of a king's
5038	coronation, or on similar occasions ;
5039	and there is no ceremonj" in which
5040	women took the part they did at the
5041	Panathenaic festival of Athens. The
5042	monuments, however, show they did
p. 79
5043	Chap. 35.
5044	SUPPORT OF PARENTS.
5045	57
5046	priestly office/ either for god or goddess, but men are
5047	priests to both ; sons need not support their parents
5048	attend in j^rocessions in honour of
5049	Atbor, as well as of Bubastis (infra,
5050	ch. GO) ; and in the funeral i)ageants
5051	women performed a great part, being
5052	the mourners for the dead, indepen-
5053	dently of those hired, as at the present
5054	day. Two, indeed, held an important
5055	oflice on that occasion. (Woodcut No.
5056	HI. figs. 1, 2.)
5057	There was also a ceremony jier-
5058	formed by a woman and a man, each
5059	holding the end of a rojjc tied in a
5060	knot round a wooden pillar, the
5061	pointed end of which they struck
5062	against the ground ; and this apjiears
5063	also to have been of a religious cha-
5064	racter connected with the dead. (No.
5065	IV.) Women were not therefore ex-
p. 80
5066	58 PRACTICE OF SHAVING THE HAIR AND BEARD. Book II.
5067	unless tliey clioose, but daughters must, whetlier tliey
5068	clioose or no.^
5069	36. In other countries the priests have long hair, in
5070	Egypt their heads are shaven f elsewhere it is cus-
5071	tomary, in mourning, for near relations to cut their hair
5072	close ; the Egyptians, who wear no hair at any other
5073	time, when they lose a relative, let their beards and the
5074	hair of their heads grow long. All other men pass their
5075	lives separate from animals, the Egyptians have animals
5076	always living with them ;^ others make barley and wheat
5077	their food, it is a disgrace to do so in Egypt,^ where the
5078	eluded from the service of religion ;
5079	aud the fact of queens holding the
5080	sceptre suffices to prove it, every
5081	monarch being privileged, and obliged,
5082	to become a member of the hierai'chy,
5083	and to be initiated in the mysteries.
5084	Diodorus also describes Athyrtis, the
5085	daughter of Sesostris, so well versed
5086	in divination that she foretold to her
5087	fixther the future success of his arms.
5088	— [G. W.]
5089	Xo. IV. ■
5090	' Of the daughters being forced to
5091	support their parents instead of the
5092	sons, it is difficult to decide ; but the
5093	improbability of the custom is glaring ;
5094	and it is the son on whom the duty
5095	fell of providing for the services in
5096	honour of his deceased parent ; and
5097	the law of debt mentioned by He-
5098	rodotus (in ch. 13G) contradicts his
5099	assertion here. — [G. W.]
5100	* The custom of shaving the liead
5101	as well as beard was not confined to
5102	the priests in Egypt, it was general
5103	among all classes ; and all the men
5104	wore wigs or caps fitting close to their
5105	heads, except some of the pjoorest
5106	class. In this the Egyjitians were
5107	unlike the " KaprjKOfMoavTas A)(aiovs :"
5108	but the custom of allowing the hair to
5109	grow in mourning was not confined to
5110	Egypt ; and Plutarch (Op. Mor. p. 267)
5111	says that in misfortune the Greek
5112	women cut off their hair, and the men
5113	let it grow, contrary to their ordinary
5114	custom. He probably means long and
5115	ueyJigpiitly ; for in most states the
5116	Greeks wore their hair moderately
5117	long ; young men and athletes short.
5118	Beards began first to be shaved in
5119	Greece in the time of Alexander.
5120	(Pint. Lysand. 1.) The habit of
5121	making a baldness between the eyes
5122	for the dead (Dent. xiv. 1), which was
5123	forbidden by the Mosaic law, was not
5124	Egy]>tian, but Syrian. — [G. W.j
5125	" Their living with animals not
5126	only contradicts a previous assertion
5127	of their eating in the streets, but is
5128	contrary to fact ; and if Herodotus
5129	really associated with any who were
5130	so liadly lodged, he must have kept
5131	very bad company during his stay in
5132	E,gi-pt.— [G. W.]
5133	" Their considering it a " disgrace "
5134	to live on wheat and barley is equally
5135	extravagant ; and though they also
5136	cultivated the holcus sorgltum (or
5137	doora), and poor people may have
5138	used it, as at the present day, when
5139	they could not afford whcaten bread,
p. 81
5140	Chap. 3fi.
5141	FOOD.
5142	59
5143	grain they live on is spelt, which some call zea. Dough
5144	they knead with their feet,^ hut they mix mud, and even
5145	take up dirt, with their hands. They are the only people
5146	in the world — they at least, and such as have learnt the
5147	it does not follow tliat the custom
5148	was obligatory, or ever adopted by an
5149	Egyptian of rank, and the assertion of
5150	Herodotus is much on a par Avitli Dr.
5151	Johnson's definition of "oats."
5152	It is not known what the olyra
5153	really was ; Pliny shows it was not
5154	rice, nor the same as zea, as Herodotus
5155	supposed, and it was probably the
5156	doora of modern Egypt, which is tlie
5157	only grain besides wheat and barley
5158	represented m the sculptures (though
5159	<7us has been thought to be "flax").
5160	(See At. Eg. W. vol. ii. p. 397.) Pliny
5161	(xviii. 7) says, " far in ^'Egv'pto ex
5162	olyra couficitur," but not of course to
5163	the exclusion of other gi-ain, as he
5164	notices wheat and barley there, and
5165	nd'ls (xviii. 8), "^Egyjitus similaginera
5166	conficit e tritico sito." Both wheat
5167	aud barley are noticed in Lower Egypt
5168	long before Herodotus' time (Exod.
5169	ix. 31, 32), and the paintings of the
5170	1'hebaid prove that they were grown
5171	extensively in that part of the coun-
5172	try ; they were among the offerings in
5173	the temples ; and the king, at his co-
5174	ronation, cutting some cars of wheat
5175	afterwards offered to the gods as the
5176	staple production of Egj'pt, shows
5177	how great a value was set on a grain
5178	which Herodotus would lead us to
5179	suppose was held in abhorrence. It
5180	is remarkable that though oats are
5181	unknown in E'zvpt the wild oat grows
5182	there.— [G. W.']
5183	^ That they trod the dough witli
5184	their feet is true, fashioning it after-
5185	No. I.
5186	No. II.
5187	wards with the hand into cakes ; but
5188	the mud was also mixed with the
5189	feet, after having been broken up
5190	with the hoe, as we see in the re-
5191	])resentation of the brickmakcrs at
5192	Thebes. See woodcut, figs. 11, 13,
5193	in note ' on oh. 136.— [0. W.]
p. 82
5194	6a
5195	CLOTHING — WRITING.
5196	Book II,
5197	practice from them^ — who use circumcision. Their men
5198	wear two garments apiece, their women but one.^ They
5199	put on the rings and fasten the ropes to sails inside,^
5200	others put them outside. When they write * or calcu-
5201	late,^ instead of going, like the Greeks, from left to
5202	* Vide infra, ch. 104.
5203	* The men having two dresses and
5204	the women one gives an erroneous
5205	impression. The usual dress of men
5206	was a long upper robe and a short
5207	kilt beneath it, the former being laid
5208	aside when at work ; while women
5209	had only the long robe. When an
5210	extra iipper garment was worn over
5211	these the men had three, the women
5212	two ; so that, instead of limiting the
5213	latter to one, he should have given to
5214	men always one more garment than
5215	the women. See woodcuts in notes
5216	on chs. 35, 37, and 81. — [G.W.]
5217	^ The Greek KaXoi generally corre-
5218	sponded to our " stays " of the mast,
5219	vTrepai to " braces," noSfs to " sheets,"
5220	and Kepovx^oi to " halliards ;" but He-
5221	rodotus only speaks of " the ropes and
5222	rings of the sails ;" and the ancient
5223	custom of fastening the braces and
5224	sheets of the sails to rings within the
5225	gunwale fully agrees with that still
5226	adopted in the Nile boats. See notes
5227	S ^ ch. 96.— [G. W.]
5228	* The Egyptians wrote from right
5229	to left in hieratic and demotic (or
5230	enchorial), which are the two modes of
5231	writing here mentioned. The Greeks
5232	also in old times wi-ote from riglit to
5233	left, like the Phoenicians, from whom
5234	they borrowed their alphabet. This
5235	seems the natural mode of writing ;
5236	for though we have always been ac-
5237	customed to write from left to right,
5238	we invariably use our pencil, in
5239	shading a drawing, from riglit to left,
5240	in spite of all our previous habit ; and
5241	even our down-strokes in writing are
5242	all from right to left. The Arabs say
5243	"it is more reasonable to see where
5244	the pen is coming, than not to see
5245	where it is going." It Avas continued
5246	by the Etruscans, the early imitators
5247	of the Greeks, to a very late period.
5248	Dr. Brugsch very ingenini^sly observes
5249	(Gram. Deraot. pp. 15, 16), that tliough
5250	nil
5251	II 1 1 0
5252	A
5253	81
5254	in 99
5255	in Demotic the general direction of the
5256	writing was from right to left, each
5257	individual letter was formed from left
5258	to right, as is evident in the un-
5259	finished ends' of horizontal letters
5260	when the ink failed in the pen. —
5261	[G. W.]
5262	* In writing numbers in Hieratic
5263	and Enchorial they placed the units
5264	to the left, that is last, according tq
5265	their mode of writing
5266	from right to left. Thus
5267	1851 would stand 1581.
5268	In 18 they would first
5269	come to the ten, and in
5270	13,432 they would be-
5271	gin with the thousands.
5272	The same mode of beginning with
5273	the largest num-
5274	ber is followed
5275	in hieroglyphics,
5276	whether written
5277	from right to
5278	left, or from left
5279	to right. This
5280	is like our ar-
5281	rangement of the thousand first and
5282	the unit last, in our writing from left
5283	to right. The Arabs, from whom we
5284	borrowed this, think we ought to have
5285	changed the arrangement, as we write
5286	in an opjiosite direction. But they
5287	borrowed their numerals from India
5288	(hence called by them " Hindee,"
5289	" Indian"), and there the arrangement
5290	is as in our own, 133 being
5291	Indian, 133,
5292	which are singularly' like the ordinal
5293	numbers of the Hieratic in Egypt —
5294	11^*
5295	2 3^ '3 \
5296	r.23
5297	Hieratic, 133''.
5298	Both these resemble the Chinese, and
p. 83
5299	Chap. 37.
5300	SUPERSTITION.
5301	61
5302	right, they move their hand from right to left ; and
5303	they insist, notwithstanding, that it is they who go to
5304	the right, and the Greeks who go to the left. They
5305	have two quite different kinds of writing,^ one of which
5306	is called sacred, the other common.
5307	37. They are religions to excess, far beyond any
5308	other race of men,^ and use the following ceremonies : —
5309	They drink out of brazen cups,^ which they scour every
5310	day : there is no exception to this practice. They wear
5311	linen garments, which they are specially careful to
5312	have always fresh washed.^ They practise circumcision
5313	the origin of the three nutabers was
5314	evidently from simple lines,
5315	converted into
5316	Tippoo Sultan, seeing the incon-
5317	sistency of following the arrange-
5318	ment used in a language read from
5319	left to right, altered it on some of his
5320	late coins, and placed the imit to the
5321	right. There is no representation on
5322	Egj'ptian monuments of an abacus
5323	for calculating, like that of the Greeks.
5324	— [G. W.]
5325	^ See note in Appendix, ch. v.
5326	' The extreme religious views of
5327	the Egyptians became at length a
5328	gross superstition, and were naturally
5329	a subject for ridicule and contempt.
5330	Liician makes Momus express his sur-
5331	prise that so many persons were al-
5332	lowed to share divine honours, but is
5333	indignant at the Egyptian crew of
5334	apes, ibises, bulls, and other ridicu-
5335	lous creatures who intruded them-
5336	selves into heaven, and wonders how
5337	Jupiter can allow himself to be cari-
5338	catured with rams' horns. Jupiter
5339	gives an answer worthy of an Egyjitian
5340	priest, that they were mysteries not
5341	to be derided by the uninitiated (Deor.
5342	Concil. s. 10). Juvenal and others
5343	take advantage of the same openino'
5344	for ridicule.— [G. W.]
5345	" This, he says, is the universal
5346	custom, without exception ; but we
5347	not only know that Joseph had a
5348	silver drinking-cup (Gen. xliv. 2,
5349	5), but the sculptures show the
5350	wealthy Egyptians used glass,
5351	porcelain, and gold, sometimes
5352	inlaid with a coloured comi:)osition
5353	resembling enamel, or with pre-
5354	cious stones. That persons who
5355	could not afford cups of more costly
5356	materials should have been contented
5357	with those of bronze is very pro-
5358	bable ; and Hellanicus (quoted by
5359	Ath. Deipn. xi. p. 470 d) mentions the
5360	phiale (dish), eyas (upright handled
5361	cup), and ethanion (strainer), in Egypt
5362	of bronze ; but, as in Etruria, Greece,
5363	and Eome, many diinking cups were
5364	also of other materials. The bronze
5365	is often gilt, and long ladles (sim-
5366	pula) and other utensils are often
5367	found with the gilding still visible ;
5368	and fragments of glass, i^orcelain, and
5369	other cups are common in Egypt as
5370	in Italy. The custom then was not
5371	universal either in the time of Hero-
5372	dotus, or before, or afterwards. See
5373	note 3 on ch. 151.— [G. W.l
5374	^ Their attention to cleanliness was
5375	very remarkable, as is shown by their
5376	shaving the head and beard, and re-
5377	moving the hair from the whole body,
5378	by their frequent ablutions, and by
5379	the strict rules instituted to ensure it.
5380	Herodotus soon afterwards says the
p. 84
5381	62
5382	CLEANLINESS.
5383	Book II.
5384	for the sake of cleanliness, considering it better to be
5385	cleanly than comely. The priests shave their whole
5386	body every other day, that no lice or other impure
5387	priests washed themselves twice eveiy
5388	day and twice every night in cold
5389	water ; and Porphyry (de Abstin. iv.
5390	7), besides three ablutions every day,
5391	and an occasional one at night, men-
5392	tions a grand ceremony of purification
5393	previous to their fasts, many of which
5394	lasted forty-two days, or even longer,
5395	during which time they abstained en-
5396	tirely from animal food, from herbs,
5397	and vegetables, and, above all, from
5398	the indulgence of the passions. The
5399	same motive of cleanliness led them
5400	to practise circumcision, which Hero-
5401	dotus afterwards mentions. Nor was
5402	this confined to the priests, as we
5403	learn from the mummies and from
5404	the sculptures, where it is made a dis-
5405	tinctive mark between the Egyptians
5406	and their enemies ; and in later times,
5407	when Egypt contained many foreign
5408	settlers, it was looked upon as a dis-
5409	tinctive sign between the orthodox
5410	Eg}7>tiau and the stranger, or the
5411	non-conformist. None tlierefore were
5412	allowed to study all the secrets of
5413	Eg}-ptian knowledge unless they had
5414	submitted to this rite ; and this pro-
5415	bably led to the notion that the
5416	priests alone were circumcised. Its
5417	institution in Egypt reaches to the
5418	most remote antiquity : we find it
5419	existing at the earliest period of which
5420	any monuments remain, more than
5421	2400 years before our era, and there
5422	is no reason to doubt that it dated
5423	still earlier.— 'G. W.]
5424	' The dress of the priests consisted,
5425	as Herodotus states, of linen (ch. 81) ;
5426	but he does not say they were confined
5427	(as some have supposed) to a single
5428	robe ; and whetlier walking abroad,
5429	or officiating in the temple, they were
5430	permitted to have more than one gai--
5431	ment. The high-priest styled Sera
5432	always wore a leopard-skin placed
5433	3 4
5434	No. 1.
p. 85
5435	Chap. 37.
5436	DRESS OF THE PRIESTS.
5437	63
5438	thing may adhere to them when they are engaged in
5439	the service of the gods. Their dress is entirely of linen,'
5440	over the linen dress as his costume
5441	of office. (No. II.) Phitarch (de Is.
5442	s. 4) agrees with Herodotus in stating
5443	tliat their dress was of linen and not
5444	of wool ; for, he adds, it would be in-
5445	consistent in men, who take so much
5446	pains to remove the hair from their
5447	body, to wear clothes made of the wool
5448	or hair of animals ; and no Egyjitian
5449	was allowed to enter a temple withoxit
5450	No. ir.
5451	taking oft' his outer woollen cloak
5452	(Her. ii. 81), nor could he be buried
5453	in cloths of that material. But
5454	though their under-garment was of
5455	linen, it did not prevent their wearing
5456	an upper one of cotton. Pliny (xix.
5457	1) affirms that cotton dresses Avere
5458	particularlj' agreeable to the priests ;
5459	and the Rosetta stone states that
5460	" cotton garments " were supplied by
5461	the government for the use of the
5462	temple. Biit these were probably the
5463	sacred robes for the statues of the
5464	Gods (Plut. de Is. s. 78); and the
5465	priests may only have been forbidden
5466	to wear cotton garments while in the
5467	temple. The votaries of Isis at Piome
5468	were subject to the same prohibition,
5469	and linen dresses were adopted by
5470	those who had been initiated into
5471	the mysteries (Plut. de Is. s. 3 ; Aj3ul.
5472	Metam. lil). xi.). The Egyptian and
5473	Jewish priests were the only ones
5474	(except perhaps those of India) whose
5475	dresses were ordered to be of linen.
5476	That worn by the former was of the
5477	finest texture, and the long robe with
5478	full sleeves, which covered the body
5479	and descended to the ankles, was per-
5480	fectly transparent, and placed over
5481	a short kilt of thicker quality reach-
5482	ing to the knees. Some wore a long
5483	robe of liaen, extending from the
5484	neck to the ankles, of the same thick
5485	No. ui.
5486	substance, and some officiated in the
5487	short kilt alone, the arms and legs
5488	being bare. Some again had a long
5489	thin dress, like a loose shirt, AAith full
5490	sleeves, reacliiug to the ankles, over
5491	which a wrapper of fine linen was
5492	Ko. IV.
5493	bound, covering the lower part of the
5494	body, and falling in front below the
5495	knees ; the hieraphoros, while bearing
5496	the sacred emblems, frequently wore
p. 86
5497	64
5498	SHOES — USE OF THE BATH.
5499	Book II.
5500	and their shoes of the papyrus plant : ^ it is not
5501	lawful for them to wear either dress or shoes of any
5502	other material. They bathe t^vice every day in cold
5503	a long full apron, tied in front with
5504	long bands, and a strap, also of linen,
5505	passed over the shoulder to support it ;
5506	and some priests wore a long smock
5507	reaching from below the arms to the
5508	feet, and supported over the neck by
5509	straps, (No. I. fig. 4.) Their head was
5510	frequently bare, sometimes covered
5511	A^ith a vng or a tight cap ; but in all
5512	cases the head was closely shaved.
5513	They had a particular mode of gouf-
5514	freying their linen dresses (also adoi^ted
5515	in Greece, to judge from the ancient
5516	statues and the vases, as well as in
5517	Etruria), which impressed upon them
5518	the waving lines represented in the
5519	paintings, and this was done by means
5520	of a wooden instrument, divided into
5521	segmental partitions I5 inch broad on
5522	its upper face, which was held by the
5523	hand while the linen was pressed upon
5524	it. One of them is in the Museum
5525	of Florence (fig. 2 gives the real size
5526	of the divisions).
5527	No. V.
5528	The fine texture of the Egyptian
5529	linen is fully proved by its trans-
5530	parency, as represented in the paint-
5531	ings, and by the statements of ancient
5532	Avi-iters, sacred (Gen. xli. 42 ; and
5533	2 Chron. i. 16) as well as jirofane, and
5534	by the wonderful texture of a piece
5535	found near Memphis, part of which is
5536	in my possession. In general quality
5537	it is equal to the finest now made ;
5538	and for the evenness of the threads,
5539	without knot or break, it is far sujie-
5540	rior to any of modern manufacture.
5541	It has in the inch 540 threads, or 270
5542	double thi'eads in the warp, and 110
5543	in the woof — a disparity which, as
5544	Mr. Thompson observes, belonged to tlie
5545	Egyptian " svstera of manufacture."
5546	(See At. Eg. W. vol. iii. p. 120, &c.)
5547	Pliny mentions four kinds of linen
5548	particularly noted in Egj'pt, the Ta-
5549	nitic, the Pelusiac, the Butine, and
5550	the Tentpitic ; and the same fuieness
5551	of texture was extended to the nets
5552	of Egypt, which were so delicate that
5553	they could pass through a man's ring.
5554	and a single person could carry a suf-
5555	ficient number of them to surround a
5556	whole wood. (Plin. xix. 1. On the
5557	Byssus,' see note*^ ch. 8G.) The trans-
5558	parent fineness of the linen dresses of
5559	men and women in the Egyptian paint-
5560	ings recalls the remark of Seneca (de
5561	Benef. vii. 9) on " sericas vestes," so
5562	thin that a woman appeared as if naked.
5563	— [G. \V.]
5564	Their sandals were made of the
5565	papyrus, or of other kinds of Cyperus ;
5566	an inferior quality being of matted
5567	palm-leaves ; and they either slept on
5568	a simple skin stretched on the ground
5569	(Eust. in Homer. II. xvi. 235), or on
5570	a wicker bed, made of palm-branches
5571	which Porjihyry very justly says
5572	were called bai (de Abstin. iv. 7). On
5573	this bedstead, which was similar to
5574	the caffas of modern Egypt, made of
5575	the same materials, a mat or a skin
5576	was spread for a mattress, and their
5577	head was supported by a half cylinder
5578	of wood in lieu of a pillow. These
5579	pillows are frequently found in the
p. 87
5580	Chap. 37. ADVANTAGES ENJOYED BY THE PRIESTS.
5581	65
5582	water, and twice each night. Besides which they oh-
5583	serve, so to speak, thousands of ceremonies. They
5584	enjoy, however, not a few advantages.^ Tliey con-
5585	sume none of their own property, and are at no
5586	expense for anything ',^ but every day bread is baked for
5587	them of the sacred corn, and a plentiful supply of beef
5588	tombs, made of acacia, sycamore, or
5589	tamarisk wood, or sometimes of ala-
5590	baster ; and they are represented
5591	among the furniture of an Egyptian
5592	mansion, in tlie Tombs of the Kings,
5593	together with the richest sofas and
5594	fauteuils. Uliey are still used in Ethi-
5595	ojiia, and also in places distant from
5596	the Nile, m Japan, China, the Western
5597	Coast of Africa, in Otaheite (Tahiti),
5598	and other jJaces. But soft pillo'ws
5599	and lofty couches were also adojited
5600	in Egypt, to which last they mounted
5601	by steps. Cp. 2 Kings i. 4; Ps.
5602	cxxxii. 3 ; Prov. vii. 16.— [G. W.]
5603	^ The gi'eatest of these was the
5604	paramount influence they exercised
5605	over the spiritual, and consequently
5606	over the temporal, concerns of the
5607	whole community, which was secm'cd
5608	to them through their superior know-
5609	ledge, by the dependence of all classes
5610	on them for the instruction they chose
5611	to impart, and by their exclusive right
5612	of possessing all the secrets of religion
5613	which were thought to place them far
5614	above the rest of mankind. Nor did
5615	their power over an individual cease
5616	with liis life ; it would even reach
5617	him after death ; and their veto could
5618	prevent his being buried in his tomb,
5619	VOL. 11.
5620	and consign his name to lasting in-
5621	famy. They thus usurped the power
5622	and place of the Gods, whose Avill they
5623	affected to be commissioned to pro-
5624	nounce ; and they acted as though the
5625	community had been made for their
5626	rule, and not their own office for
5627	the benefit of the community.
5628	Priestcraft indeed isalwaysodious,
5629	but especially Avhen people are
5630	taught to believe what the priests
5631	themselves know to be mere fable ;
5632	and the remark of Cato, " It ap-
5633	pears strange that one priest can
5634	refrain ft-om laughing when he
5635	looks at another," might well
5636	apply to those of Egypt, (Cic.
5637	de Nat. Deor. i. 26) ; de Div. ii.)
5638	It must however be admitted that
5639	they did not make a show of
5640	great sanctity, nor set themselves
5641	above the customs of society, in
5642	order to increase their power over it ;
5643	they were good husbands and fathers,
5644	and they showed the highest regard
5645	for all social duties. Manldnd too
5646	had not then been enlightened by
5647	Christianity ; and the Egyptian hier-
5648	archy had the merit of having en-
5649	joined, practised, and ensured morality,
5650	and contributed gi'eatly to the welfare
5651	of the people they so long governed.
5652	— [Cx. W.]
5653	* They were exempt from taxes,
5654	and were provided with a daily allow-
5655	ance of meat, corn, and wine ; and
5656	when Pharaoh, by the advice of Jo-
5657	seph, took all the land of the Egyp-
5658	tians in lieu of corn (Gen. xlvii. 20,
5659	22), the land of the priests was ex-
5660	empt, and the tax of the fifth ] art of
5661	the produce was not levied upon it.
5662	Diodorus (i. 72) says the land was
5663	divided into three portions, one of
5664	which belonged to the king, another
5665	to the priests, and the third to the
5666	military caste. — ''G. W.l
p. 88
5667	66
5668	FISH AND BEANS NOT EATEN.
5669	Book II.
5670	and of goose's flesTi is assigned to each, and also a
5671	portion of wine made from the grape. ^ Fish they are
5672	not allowed to eat f and beans, — which none of the
5673	Egyptians ever sow, or eat, if they come up of their
5674	own accord, either raw or boiled^ — the priests will not
5675	even endure to look on, since they consider it an un-
5676	clean kind of pulse. Instead of a single priest, each
5677	5 Herodotus is quite riglit in saying
5678	they were allowed to drink wine, and
5679	the assertion of Plutarch (de Is. s. 6)
5680	that the kings (who were also of the
5681	priestly caste) were not peiTuitted to
5682	drink it before the reign of Psammeti-
5683	chus is contradicted by the authority
5684	of the Bible (Gen. xl. 10, 13) and the
5685	sculptures ; and if on some occasions
5686	it really was not admitted into the
5687	temple of Heliopolis, it was not ex-
5688	cluded from other temples, and wine
5689	was among the usual offerings made
5690	to the Gods. Herodotus tells us (ch.
5691	39) that they began their sacrifices
5692	by a libation of wine ; and it is evi-
5693	dent from the sculptures that it
5694	was also admitted into the temples
5695	of the Sun, or at least at his
5696	altar in other temples. And though
5697	Hecatajus asserts that the kings were
5698	allowed a stated quantity, according
5699	to the regulations in the sacred books
5700	(Plut. de Is. s. 6), they were reported
5701	by the Egyptians to have exceeded
5702	those limits, as in the case of Myce-
5703	rinus and Amasis. (Her. ii. 133, 174.)
5704	Of the kings and the laws respecting
5705	them, see At. Eg. W. vol. i. p. 249-
5706	255, and compare notes on chs. 18,
5707	60, 63, 77.— "G. W.j
5708	* Though fish were so generally
5709	eaten by the rest of the Egyptians,
5710	they were forbidden to the priests, and
5711	when on the 9th daj' of the 1st month
5712	(Thoth), when a religious ceremony
5713	obliged all the people to eat a fried
5714	fish before the door of their houses,
5715	the priests were not even then ex-
5716	pected to conform to the general cus-
5717	tom, but were contented to bimi theirs
5718	at the appointed time (Pint, de Is. s.
5719	7). The principal food of the priests,
5720	as Diodorus justly states, was lieef
5721	and goose, and the gazelle, iliex, oryx.
5722	and wild-fowl were not forbidden ; but
5723	they " abstained from most sorts of
5724	pulse, from mutton, and swine's flesh,
5725	and in their more solemn purifications
5726	they even excluded salt from their
5727	meals " (Plut. de Is. s. 5). Garlick,
5728	leeks, onions, lentils, peas, and above
5729	all beans, are said to have been ex-
5730	cluded from the tables of the priests.
5731	See Diod. Sic. i. 81, 89 ; Plut. de Is.
5732	s. 8; Juv. Sat. xv. 9.— [G. W.]
5733	7 Diodorus (i. 89) is more correct
5734	when he says that some only of the
5735	Egyptians abstained from beans, and
5736	it may be doubted if they grew in
5737	Egypt without being sown. The
5738	custom of forbidding beans to the
5739	priests was borrowed from Egypt by
5740	Pythagoras. Cicero (de Div. i. 30)
5741	thinks it was from their disturbing the
5742	mind during sleep. In like manner
5743	the prohibition against eating swine's
5744	flesh and fish was doubtless from the
5745	desire to abstain from food which was
5746	apt to engender cutaneous disorders
5747	in persons of sedentarj" habits, while
5748	the active life of other classes (having
5749	the "dura messorum ilia'') enabled
5750	them to eat the same things without
5751	endangering their heaith. This will
5752	not, however, account for mutton
5753	being forbidden in the Thebaid, which
5754	is the most wholesome meat in Egypt ;
5755	and we can only suppose it was owing
5756	to sheep having been few in number
5757	at the time the law was first made ;
5758	when they were anxious to encourage
5759	the breed for the sake of the wool,
5760	and feared to lessen their nimiber, as
5761	.was the case with the cow both in
5762	Egjq^t and India. The name Kvafios
5763	was also applied to the seeds of the
5764	Nelumbium or Indian Lotus. See
5765	note ^ on ch. 92.— [G. W.]
p. 89
5766	Chap. 37.
5767	CHIEF PRIESTS.
5768	67
5769	god has the attendance of a college, at the head of
5770	which is a chief priest f when one of these dies, his son
5771	is appointed in his room.
5772	® This is fully confirmed .by the
5773	sculptures. They were not, however,
5774	always replaced at their death Ly
5775	their sons ; and though this w^as often
5776	the case, a son might become a yiriest
5777	of another deity, and have a higher or
5778	lower grade than his father. He could
5779	also be a priest during his father's
5780	lifetime, and numerous sons could not
5781	expect the same office as their father.
5782	The son of a priest was generally a
5783	priest also ; and when an elder son
5784	succeeded to the same office held be-
5785	fore by his father, it is very possible
5786	that he inherited the same dress of in-
5787	vestiture, which was also the custom
5788	of the Jews (Exod. xxix. 29); but a
5789	priest's son might be a military man.
5790	The priests had various grades. The
5791	chief priests held the first post, and
5792	one of them had an office of great im-
5793	portance, which was usually fulfilled
5794	by the king himself. He was the
5795	prophet and officiating high -priest,
5796	and had the title of " Sem, Pk
5797	in addition to that of chief priest,
5798	and he was distinguished by w^earing
5799	a leopard's skin over his ordinary
5800	robes. (See n. '■ ch. 37, woodcut Iso>
5801	11.) He does not appear to have
5802	ranked above chief-priests, being men-
5803	tioned after them on the Kosetta
5804	stone, but to have been one of them
5805	in a particular capacity. He might
5806	also be a chief-priest of one God, and
5807	Sem of another ; and one in a tomb
5808	at Thebes is called " chief-priest of
5809	Amun, Se'/n in the temple of Pthah,
5810	superior of the priests of the upper
5811	and lower country ;" and his father
5812	was chief-priest withoi;t the adthtional
5813	office of *S'e??2.. The prophets were par-
5814	ticularly versed in all matters relating
5815	to the ceremonies, the "n'orship of the
5816	Gods, the laws, and the discipline of the
5817	whole order, and they not only pre-
5818	sided over the temple and the sacred
5819	rites, but directed the management
5820	of the sacred revenues. (Clem. Alex.
5821	Strom, vi. p. 758.) In the solemn pro-
5822	cessions they had a conspicuous part ;
5823	they bore the holy hydria or vase,
5824	which was frequently carried by the
5825	king on similar occasions, and they
5826	with the chief-priests were the first
5827	whose opinion was consulted respect-
5828	ing the introduction of any new mea-
5829	sure connected with religion, as we
5830	find in the decree of the Eosetta stone,
5831	which w^as " established by the chief-
5832	priests and prophets, and those who
5833	have access to the adytum to clothe
5834	the Gods, and the jiterophorai, and
5835	the sacred scribes, and all the other
5836	jmests .... assembled in the temple
5837	of Memphis." Some of the principal
5838	functionaries " in the solemn proces-
5839	sions " are thus mentioned by Clemens
5840	(Strom. ^^. p. 757) : " The singer
5841	usually goes first, bearing the symbols
5842	of music, whose duty is said to be to
5843	carry two of the books of Hermes. . . .
5844	he is followed by the Horoscopus, bear-
5845	ing in his hand the m«asure of time
5846	(hourglass), and the palm (branch),
5847	the sjTubols of astrology (astronomy)
5848	.... next comes the Hierogrammat
5849	(sacred scribe) having feathers on his
5850	head (see woodcut fig. 9, note ' on ch.
5851	37), and in his hands a book (papyrus)
5852	with a ruler (palette) in which is ink
5853	iBMiiiiifi immiiiiiiiNiuii iiiiiiiii[uiuiiiini]iiiii»iiiiiiiiiiniiiimiiMiir«ir»uinuiiiuniiininuiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiinMiiiiiiiniii»uin\|iiHiiiniiHifii\|i\|iiriiiiiiiiiiniilinnii
p. 90
5854	68
5855	TEST OF ^lALE KI^E.
5856	Book II.
5857	38. Male kine are reckoned to belong to Epaphus,®
5858	and are therefore tested in the following manner : —
5859	One of the priests appointed for the purpose searches to
5860	see if there is a sins-le black hair on the whole body,
5861	since in that case the beast is unclean. He examines
5862	him all over, standing on his legs, and again laid upon
5863	his back ; after which he takes the tongue out of his
5864	mouth, to see if it be clean in respect of the prescribed
5865	marks (what they are I will mention elsewhere^) ; he
5866	also inspects the hairs of the tail, to observe if they grow
5867	naturally. If the animal is pronounced clean in all
5868	these various points, the priest marks him by twisting
5869	a piece of pap}Tus round his horns, and attaching thereto
5870	some sealing-clay, which he then stamps with his own
5871	signet-ring.^ After this the beast is led away ; and it
5872	and a reed for ^^iting (fig. 1), then the
5873	stolistes, bearing the cubit of justice
5874	(fig. 2), and the cup of libation (fig. 3)
5875	, . . and lastly the Prophet, the president
5876	of the temple, who carries in his bosom
5877	a water-jar, followed by persons bear-
5878	ing loaves of bread." See procession
5879	in pi. 76 of At. Eg, W. vol. vi. ; and
5880	below, note ^ on ch. 58. — [G. W. j
5881	* Epaphus, Herodotus says (in ch.
5882	153), is the Greek name of Apis, of
5883	which it is jn-obably only a corniption
5884	(see also B. iii. chs. 27, 28). In exa-
5885	mining a bull for sacrifice, he adds, they
5886	admitted none but those which were
5887	free from black liairs ; and Maimonides
5888	states that " if only two white or black
5889	hairs were found hnng upon each other,
5890	the animal was considered unfit for
5891	sacrifice" (Maim, de Vacca nifa, c. 1).
5892	This calls to mind the law of the Israel-
5893	ites, commanding them to "biing a
5894	red heifer \vithout spot, wherein was
5895	no blemish " (Xumb. xix. 2). But the
5896	sculptures show that bulls with black,
5897	and red, or white spots, were com-
5898	monly killed both for the altar and
5899	the table, and the only prohibition
5900	seems to have been against killing
5901	heifers ; and to ensure a regard for
5902	them they were held sacred (see below,
5903	n. ^ ch. 41). It was on this accoimt that
5904	Moses proposed to go three days into
5905	the desert, lest the anger of the Egyp-
5906	tians should be raised on seeing the
5907	Israelites sacrifice a heifer (Exod. viii.
5908	26) ; and by this very opposite choice
5909	of a \'ictim they were made imequi-
5910	vocally to denounce, and to separate
5911	themselves from, the rites of Egyjat.
5912	-[G. W.]
5913	' It is not at all clear that the refer-
5914	ence is to iii. 28, as the commentators
5915	generally suppose (see Larcher, Bahr,
5916	and Blakesley ad loc.) : for Hero-
5917	dotus is there describing, not the ani-
5918	mal which might be offered to Apis,
5919	but the animal which was regarded as
5920	an incarnation of Apis. Perhaps we
5921	have here, as in Aii. 213, a promise
5922	that is unfulfilled.
5923	^ The sanction given for sacrificing
5924	a bull was by a papyrus band tied by
5925	the priest round the homs, which he
5926	stamped with his signet on sealing-
5927	clay. Documents sealed with fine clay
5928	and impressed with a signet are very
5929	common ; but tlie exact symbols im-
5930	pressed on it by the
5931	priest on this occa-
5932	sion are not kno^Ti.
5933	Castor says they
5934	consisted of a man
5935	kneeling with his hands tied behind
p. 91
5936	Chap. 38, 39.
5937	MANNER OF SACRIFICE.
5938	69
5939	is forbidden, under the penalty of death, to sacrifice an
5940	animal which has not been marked in this way.
5941	39. The following is their manner of sacrifice :■ — They
5942	lead the victim, marked with their signet, to the altar
5943	where they are about to offer it, and setting the wood
5944	alight, pour a libation of wine upon the altar in front of
5945	the victim, and at the same time invoke the god. Then
5946	they slay the animal,^ and cutting off his head, proceed
5947	him, and a sword pointed to his
5948	throat, which was proliably this (of
5949	woodcut), though it has not heeu
5950	found on a seal. The clay used in
5951	closing and seahng papyri is of very
5952	tine quality. A similar kind was em-
5953	ployed for ofhcial seals by the Greeks
5954	and AssjTiaus. On signet-rings see
5955	my note on B. iii. ch. 41. — [G. W.]
5956	^ We learn from the sculptures that
5957	the victim, ha\iug its feet tied to-
5958	gether, was thrown on the gi'ound;
5959	and the priest having placed his hand
5960	on its head (as in Levit. i. 4 ; iii. 8),
5961	or holding it by the horn, cut its
5962	throat, apparently from ear to ear, as
5963	is the custom of the Moslems at the
5964	present day. The skin was then re-
5965	moved, and after the head had been
5966	taken away, the foreleg or shoulder,
5967	generally the right (as in Levit. \'iii.
5968	26), was the first joint cut oif. This
5969	was considered, and called, the chosen
5970	part (Sapt), and was the first offered
5971	on the altar. (Cp. 1 Sam. ix. 24 ;
5972	Levit. \'ii. 33 ; viii. 25.) The other
5973	parts were afterwards cut up ; and the
5974	shoulder, the thigh, the head, the ribs,
5975	the rura]i, the heart, and the kidneys,
5976	were the principal ones placed on the
5977	3
5978	No. I.
5979	altar. The head, which Herodotus
5980	says was either taken to the market
5981	and sold to strangers, or thrown into
5982	the river, is as common on the altars
5983	No. III.
5984	No. IV. 1
p. 92
5985	70
5986	IMPEECATIONS.
5987	Book II.
5988	to flay tlie body.* Next they take the head, and
5989	heaping imprecations on it, if there is a market-j^lace
5990	as any other joint, and an instance
5991	sometimes oce-urs of the whole animal
5992	being placed upon it. We may there-
5993	fore conclude that the imprecations
5994	he says were called down upon the
5995	head were confined to certain occa-
5996	sions and to one particular victim, as
5997	in the case of the scapegoat of the
5998	Jews (Levit. xvi. 8, 10, 21), and it
5999	was of that particular animal that no
6000	Egyptian would eat the head. It
6001	may not have been a favourite joint,
6002	since we find it given to a poor man
6003	for holding the walking-sticks of the
6004	guests at a party ; but he was an
6005	Egyptian, not a foreigner, and this is
6006	in the paintings of a tomb at Thebes,
6007	of the earl}^ time of the 18th dynasty
6008	(woodcut No. IV.).— [G. W.]
6009	■• Homer's description of the mode of
6010	Xo. II.
p. 93
6011	Chap. 40.
6012	DISEMBOWELLING AND BUENING.
6013	71
6014	and a body of Greek traders in the city, they carry it
6015	there and sell it instantly ; if, however, there are no
6016	Greeks among them, they throw the head into the
6017	river. The imprecation is to this effect : — They pray
6018	that if any evil is impending either over those who
6019	sacrifice, or over universal Egypt, it may be made to
6020	fall upon that head. These practices, the imprecations
6021	upon the heads, and the libations of wine, prevail all
6022	over Egypt, and extend to victims of all sorts ; and
6023	hence the Egyptians will never eat the head of any
6024	animal.
6025	40. The disembowelling and burning are however
6026	different in different sacrifices. I will mention the mode
6027	in use with respect to the goddess wliom they regard
6028	as the greatest,^ and honour with the chiefest festival.
6029	When they have flayed their steer they pray, and when
6030	slaughtering an animal (II. i. 459-i66)
6031	is very similar : " They drew back the
6032	head and killed it, and after skinning it
6033	they cut off the legs (nrjpovs), which
6034	being wrapped up in the fat (caul)
6035	folded double, they placed portions of
6036	raw meat thereon ; an old man then
6037	burnt it on split wood, and poured
6038	black wine on it, while the j'ouug
6039	men beside him held five-pronged
6040	spits. When the legs (thighs and
6041	shoulders) were burnt, and they had
6042	tasted the ' inward parts,' they cut
6043	the rest into small pieces, and put
6044	them on skewers (spits), roasting
6045	them cleverly, and took all off again."
6046	-[G. W.]
6047	^ Herodotus here evidently alludes
6048	to Isis, as he shows in chs. 59, 61, where
6049	he speaks of her fete at Bi;siris ; but he
6050	afterwards confounds her with Athor
6051	(ch. 41). This is very excusable in the
6052	historian, since the attributes of those
6053	two Goddesses are often so closely
6054	connected that it is difficult to dis-
6055	tinguish them in the sculptures, im-
6056	less their names are directly specified.
6057	It was however more so in late than
6058	in early times, and at Dendera Athor
6059	has very nearly the same appearance
6060	as Isis, though still a distinct Goddess,
6061	as is shown by each of them having a
6062	temple at that place. Herodotus (in
6063	ch. 41) says that cows were sacred to
6064	Isis, whose statues had the head of
6065	that animal ; but it was to Athor, the
6066	Venus of Egyjit, that they were sa-
6067	cred ; and it is only when one adopts
6068	the attributes of the other, that Isis
6069	has the head of the sjiotted cow of
6070	Athor, or that this Goddess takes the
6071	name of Isis. Plutarch says Isis was
6072	called Miith, Athyri, and Methuer
6073	(de Is. s. 56). That Herodotus was
6074	really describing Athor and not Isis
6075	is shown Ijy tlie city where the cattle
6076	■were sent being Atarbechis. (See be-
6077	low note ^ on ch. 41.) The Roman poets
6078	made a double error in confounding
6079	Isis with Athor, and even with Juno,
6080	whence " nivea Saturnia vacca."
6081	Great honours were also paid to the
6082	Cow of Athor at Momemphis, where
6083	Venus was particularly worshipped ;
6084	and wherever she had a temple a
6085	sacred Cow was kept, as Strabo says
6086	was the case at Momemphis as well
6087	as other places in the Delta ; and at
6088	Chusa3, a small village in the Hernio-
6089	politc nome wliere Venus was \\'or-
6090	ship]ied under the title of Urania. —
6091	[G. W.]
p. 94
6092	72
6093	COWS SACRED TO ISIS.
6094	Book II.
6095	their prayer is ended they take the paunch of the animal
6096	out entire, leaving the intestines and the fat inside the
6097	body ; they then cut off the legs, the end of the loins,
6098	the shoulders, and the neck' ; and having so done, they
6099	lill the body of the steer with clean bread, honey, raisins,
6100	figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other aromatics.^ Thus
6101	filled, they burn the body, pouring over it great quan-
6102	tities of oil. Before offering the sacrifice they fast, and
6103	while the bodies of the victims are being consumed they
6104	beat themselves. Afterwards, when they have con-
6105	cluded this part of the ceremony, they have the other
6106	parts of the victim served up to them for a repast.
6107	41. The male kine, therefore, if clean, and the male
6108	calves, are used for sacrifice by the Egyptians univer-
6109	sally ; but the female they are not allowed to sacrifice,''
6110	since they are sacred to Isis. The statue of this
6111	goddess has the form of a woman but with horns like a
6112	cow, resembling thus the Greek representations of lo f
6113	" The custom of filling the body
6114	with cakes and various things, and
6115	then burning it all, calls to mind the
6116	Jewish burnt offering (Levit. viii. 25,
6117	26).— [G. W.]
6118	^ In order to prevent the breed of
6119	cattle from being diminished ; but
6120	some mysterious reason being assigned
6121	for it, the people were led to respect
6122	an ordonnance which might not other-
6123	wise have been attended to. This
6124	was the general system, and the rea-
6125	son of many things being held sacred
6126	may be attributed to a necessary pre-
6127	caution. It is indeed distinctly stated
6128	by Porphyry (de Abstin. ii. &. 11),
6129	who says " the Egyptians and Phoe-
6130	nicians would rather eat human flesh
6131	than that of cows, on account of the
6132	value of the animal', though they
6133	both sacrifice and eat bulls ;" and the
6134	same was doubtless the origin of a
6135	similar superstition in India. In an-
6136	other place PorphjTy (iv. 7) says the
6137	same thing, and adds " that certain
6138	bulls were held in the same venera-
6139	tion, while others were preserved for
6140	labour." Some years ago no one was
6141	allowed to kill a calf in Egypt, and a
6142	jjermission from the government was
6143	required for the slaughter of a bull ;
6144	but this soon degenerated into a mere
6145	tax, and coavs and calves were per-
6146	mitted to be killed on the payment of
6147	a duty. In India and Thibet the
6148	veneration for the cow is as remark-
6149	able as in Egypt. Jerome also re-
6150	marks, " In iEgypto et PaL-vstina
6151	propter boum raritatem nemo vaccam
6152	comedit " (ii. adv. Jovin. 7). Por-
6153	phyry (de Abstin.) says the first who
6154	sacrificed did not offer animals, but
6155	herbs and flowers ; and (de Sacrif. ii.)
6156	flour, honey, and fruits. — [G. W.]
6157	^ This name is evidently connected
6158	with Ehe, " the Cow," of the Egyp-
6159	tians, which was given to one of their
6160	goddesses ; but the remark of Eusta-
6161	thius that " lo, in the language of the
6162	Argives, is the moon," is explained
6163	by its being the Egyptian name loh,
6164	" the moon," which, though quite dis-
6165	tinct from Ehc, agi-ees well with lo
6166	being looked upon by the Greeks as
p. 95
6167	Chap. 4L.
6168	SEPULTURE OF KINE.
6169	73
6170	and the Egyptians, one and all, venerate cows mucli
6171	more liighly than any other animal. This is the reason
6172	why no native of Egypt, whether man or woman, will
6173	give a Greek a kiss,^ or use the knife of a Greek, or his
6174	spit, or his cauldron, or taste the flesh of an ox, known
6175	to he pure, if it has heen cut with a Greek knife. When
6176	kine die, the following is the manner of their sepulture : —
6177	The females are thrown into the river ; the males are
6178	huried in the suhurhs of the towns, with one or both of
6179	their horns appearing above the surface of the ground
6180	to mark the place. When the bodies are decayed, a
6181	boat comes, at an appointed time, from the island
6182	called Prosopitis,^ — which is a portion of the Delta,
6183	the moon, and with the supposed
6184	rehxtionship of the Egyptians and the
6185	Argives, who were said to have been
6186	a colony taken by Danaiis from the
6187	Nile. lo is reported to have visited
6188	Egypt in her wanderings, and to have
6189	"■^n changed into Isis, iu the city of
6190	Coptos, where she was worshipped
6191	under that name. (See Diod. i. 1^4 ;
6192	and comp. Ovid Met. i. 588, 747 ; Pro-
6193	pert, ii. Elog. 28. 17 ; and At. Eg. W.
6194	vol. iv. p. 382, 388, 390 ; vol. v. p.
6195	195.) The story of her having given
6196	birth to Epaphus (the Apis of Egj-pt)
6197	was probably a later addition : but
6198	her wandering to the Nile, like the
6199	fable related by Herodotus (Book i.
6200	ch. 5), points to the connexion between
6201	Egypt and Argos. The name loh, or
6202	Aah, written Iho, or Aha, is an in-
6203	stance of the medial vowel at the end
6204	of a word in hieroglyphics. (See below,
6205	n.^, and App. ch. v. § 16.)— [G. W.]
6206	" The Egyptians considered all fo-
6207	reigners unclean, with whom they
6208	would not eat, and particularly the
6209	Greeks. " The Egyptians might not
6210	eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is
6211	an abomination unto the Egyptians "
6212	(Gen. xliii. 32); and the same prejudice
6213	is continued by the Hindoos, and by
6214	many of the Moslems, to the present
6215	day. But the last have gi'adations,
6216	like the ancient Egy^itians, who looked
6217	with greater horror on those who did
6218	not cut the throat from ear to ear of
6219	all animals used for food. — [G. W.]
6220	' Some suppose the town of Pro-
6221	s6pitis to have been also called
6222	Nicium. The island was between the
6223	Canojiic and Sebennytic branches, at
6224	the for]<, and on the west side of the
p. 96
6225	74
6226	COLLECTION OF THE BOXES OF OXEN.
6227	Book IL
6228	nine schoeues in circumference, — and calls at the
6229	several cities in turn to collect the bones of the oxen.
6230	Prosopitis is a district containing several cities ; the
6231	name of that from which the boats come is Atarbechis.^
6232	Yenus has a temple there of much sanctity. Great
6233	numbers of men go forth from this city and proceed
6234	to the other towns, where they dig up the bones,
6235	which they take away with them and bury together
6236	in one place. The same j)ractice prevails with respect
6237	to the interment of all other cattle — the law so deter-
6238	mining ; they do not slaughter any of them.
6239	apex of the Delta. It was there that
6240	tlie Athenians, who came to assist the
6241	Egyptians against the Persians, were
6242	besieged, B.C. 460-458. (Thucyd. i.
6243	109.) It is not to be supposed that
6244	all the bulls that died in Egypt were
6245	carried to Atarbochis to be buried ; and
6246	much less that all the bodies of heifers
6247	were thrown into the river. Like other
6248	animals they were embalmed and
6249	buried in the place where they died,
6250	and their mummies are consequently
6251	found at Thebes and in other parts of
6252	the country. The Egyptians were
6253	particular in preventing anj-thing re-
6254	maining above gi'ound, which by pu-
6255	trefaction could taint the air ; and this
6256	was the reason of their obliging every
6257	town to embalm whatever died there.
6258	It is probable that villages near Atar-
6259	bechis sent the carcases of bulls to
6260	that city, which led Herodotus to
6261	suppose that all places did so ; as
6262	other animals were sent from different
6263	villages in the neighbourhood to the
6264	chief city, where they were sacred.
6265	To pollute the Nile with dead car-
6266	cases would have been in the highest
6267	degi'ee inconsistent in a people so par-
6268	ticular on this point : and the notion of
6269	Herodotus can only be explained by
6270	their sometimeR feeding the crocodiles
6271	with them. The prejudice in favour
6272	of the river still remains in Egj'pt, and
6273	even the Moslems swear " by that pure
6274	stream."— [G. W.]
6275	* Athor being the Yenus of EgA'pt,
6276	Atarbechis was translated Aphrodito-
6277	polis. It was composed ofatar or athor,
6278	and hechi or bek, " city," which occurs
6279	again in Baallek, the city of Baal, or
6280	the Sun (Heliopolis) ; Eabek, the Assy-
6281	rian name of the Egyptian Heliopolis,
6282	from the Egj-ptian Be or Ba, " the
6283	sun." This Aphroditopolis is sujj-
6284	posed to have been at the modern
6285	Shihbeen, in the Isle of Prosopitis,
6286	between the Canopic and Sebennytic
6287	branches of the Nile, on an offset of
6288	the latter, called Thermuthiac, which
6289	formed the western, as the Sebennytic
6290	did the eastern, bomidary of the Isle
6291	of Natho. There were other towns
6292	called Aphroditopolis in Upper Egypt.
6293	Athor signifies, as Plutarch says,
6294	" Horns' habitation," Thy-hor, or Tei-
6295	hor, T H I - S O P, the origin of the name
6296	Thueris, who, however, was made into
6297	another person (Pint, de Is. s. 56, and
6298	19). As the morning-star she issued
6299	from the mountain of Thebes under
6300	the form of a spotted cow, and as the
6301	evening-star she retired behind it at
6302	night. She also rejiresented Night,
6303	and in this capacity received the sun
6304	at his setting into her arms as he
6305	retired beliind the western mountain
6306	of Thebes. It was from this that the
6307	western part of the city was called
6308	Pathyris, " belonging to Athor," who
6309	presided over the west. (On Athor
6310	see At. Eg. W. vol. iv. 386 to 394.)
6311	Her great importance is shown by
6312	the many cities dedicated to her in
6313	Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as
6314	temples in other places, from the
p. 97
6315	Chap. 42.
6316	GOATS OFFERED IN THE THEBAIS.
6317	75
6318	42. Such EgyjDtians as possess a temple of the
6319	Theban Jove, or Hve in the Thebaic canton,^ offer no
6320	sheep in sacrifice,* but only goats ; for the Egyptians
6321	do not all worship the same gods,^ excepting Isis and
6322	earliest times to the Ptolemies and
6323	Cjesars ; and Venus was the gi'eat
6324	goddess of Phoenicia and other coun-
6325	tries.—[G. W.J
6326	^ On the cantons or nomes of Egj'pt
6327	see note ' on ch. 164. It has erroneously
6328	been supposed that each nome " was
6329	kept distinct from the others by the dif-
6330	ference of religion and rites." It is true
6331	there was a chief god of the nome ;
6332	but cities of different nomes were
6333	often dedicated to the same deity ;
6334	and even a city might have a chief
6335	god who was not the one of the nome,
6336	as Eileithyia was in her city within
6337	the nome of Apollinopolis. The nu-
6338	merous divinities worshipped through-
6339	out Egypt were also admitted as con-
6340	templar gods in any part of the country.
6341	See note ^ on this chapter. — [G. W.]
6342	* Sheep are never represented on
6343	the altar, or slaughtered for the table,
6344	at Thebes, though they were kept
6345	there for their wool ; and I'lutarch
6346	says " none of the Egyptians eat
6347	sheep, except the Lycopolites " (de
6348	Isid. s. 72). Goats were killed, but
6349	tlie Theban gentry seem to have pre-
6350	ferred the ibex or wild goat, the oryx,
6351	the gazelle, and other game. These,
6352	however, were confined to tlie wealthier
6353	classes ; others lived jjrincipally on
6354	beef, Nile geese, and other wild fowl ;
6355	and some were satisfied with fish,
6356	either fresh or salted, with an occa-
6357	sional goose or a joint of meat ; and
6358	the numerous vegetables Egypt pro-
6359	duced appeared in profusion on every
6360	table. Lentil porridge was, as at pre-
6361	sent, a great article of food for the
6362	poor, as well as the raphanus (^figJ)
6363	(Herod, ii. 125), " cucumbers (or
6364	gourds), melons, and leeks, onions,
6365	and garlick" (Num. xi. 5), of which
6366	the gourd (kus, Arabic hilz), melon
6367	{ahtikh, Arabic batikJi), onion (^hxsl,
6368	Arabic busl), and garlick (^tom, Arabic
6369	torn) retain their names in Egypt
6370	to the present day. They had also
6371	fruits and roots of various kinds ;
6372	and Diodorus (i. 80) says that
6373	children had merely " a little meal of
6374	the coarsest kind, the pith of the
6375	pajiyrus, baked under the ashes, and
6376	the roots and stalks of marsh-weeds."
6377	Beef and goose, ibex, gazelle, orj'x,
6378	and wild fowl were also presented to
6379	the gods ; and onions, though for-
6380	bidden to the priests, always held a
6381	jirominent place on their altar, Avith
6382	the Jigl (raphanus, figs. 7, 8), and
6383	gourds (figs. 5, 6), gi-apes, figs (espe-
6384	cially of the sycamore, figs. 3, 4), corn,
6385	and various flowers. (See ch. 31),
6386	woodcut No. II.) Wine, milk, beer,
6387	and a profusion ol cakes and bread,
6388	also iormed part of the oflerings, and
6389	incense was presented at every great
6390	sacrifice. — [G, W.]
6391	* Though each city had its pre-
6392	siding deity, many others of neigh-
6393	bouring and of distant towns were
6394	also admitted to its temples as con-
6395	templar gods, and none were positively
6396	excluded except some local divinities,
6397	and certain animals, whose sanctity
6398	was confined to particular places. In
6399	one city Amun was the chief deity,
6400	as at Thebes ; in another Pthah, as at
6401	Memphis ; in another Pie (the sun),
6402	as at Heliopolis ; and some cities
6403	which were consecrated to the same
6404	deity were distinguished by the aflix
6405	" the great," " the lesser," as Aphro-
6406	ditopolis, and Diospolis, Magna, and
6407	Parva. Many again bore a name not
6408	taken from the chief god of the place ;
6409	but every city and every sanctuary
6410	had its presiding deitj^, with con-
6411	templar gods, who were members of
p. 98
6412	76
6413	SHEEP OFFERED AT MENDES.
6414	Book II.
6415	Osiris, the latter of whom they say is the Grecian
6416	Bacchus.^ Those, on the contrary, who possess a
6417	temple dedicated to Mendes,' or belong to the Men-
6418	desian canton, abstain from offering goats, and sacrifice
6419	the general Pantheon — those of a
6420	neighbouring town generally holding
6421	a conspicuous post in the temple,
6422	after the cliief deity of the place.
6423	Each town had also a triad composed
6424	of the great god of the place and two
6425	other members. Many local deities
6426	scarcely went beyond their own city
6427	or nome ; and some animals, sacred in
6428	one province, were held in abhorrence
6429	in another. Thus, the inhabitants of
6430	Ombos, Athribis, and the Northern
6431	Crocodilopolis (afterwards called Ar-
6432	sinoe), near the Lake ]\Ia?ris, honoured
6433	the crocodile ; those of TentjTis, He-
6434	racleopolis, and ApoUinopolis Magna
6435	were its avowed enemies ; and as the
6436	Ombites fought with the Tentyrites
6437	in the cause of their sacred animal,
6438	so a war was waged between the
6439	Osp'hiucliites and Cynopolites in con-
6440	sequence of the former having eaten
6441	a dog, to avenge an affront offered by
6442	the CjTiopolites, who had brought to
6443	table the sacred fish of Oxp'hiuchus.
6444	(Pint, de Isid. v, 44.) The reason of
6445	these local honours was not originally
6446	connected with religion ; and the sanc-
6447	tity of the crocodile, and of certain
6448	fish, at Crocodilopolis, Oxyrhinchus,
6449	and other places distant from the Nile,
6450	was instituted in order to induce the
6451	inhabitants to keep up the canals.
6452	All, it is true, worshipped Osiris, as
6453	well as his sister Isis, for as he was
6454	judge of the dead, all were equally
6455	amenable to his tribunal ; but it can-
6456	not be said that he and Isis were the
6457	only deities worshipped throughout
6458	Egypt, since Amun, Pthah, and the
6459	other gi-eat gods, and many also of the
6460	second, as well as of the tliird order,
6461	were universally venerated. — [G. W.J
6462	•^ See below,note^ onch. 4S. "Osiris,''
6463	says Diodorus, " has been considered
6464	the same as Sarapis, Bacchus, Pluto,
6465	or Ammou ; others have thought him
6466	Jupiter ; many Pan :" and he endea-
6467	vours to identify him A\-ith the sun,
6468	and Isis with the moon. But these
6469	notions were owang to similarities
6470	being traced in the attributes of cer-
6471	tain gods of the Greek and Egyptian
6472	Pantheons, and one often possessed
6473	some that belon€:ed to several. Thus
6474	the principal character of Osiris was
6475	that of Pluto, because he was Judge
6476	of the dead, and ruler of Amenti or
6477	Hades : and he was supposed to be
6478	Bacchus, when he lived on earth, aud
6479	taught man to till the laud. — [G. W.]
6480	^ The mounds of Ashmoiin, on the
6481	canal leading to Menzaleh, mark the
6482	site of Mendes The Greeks con-
6483	sidered Pan to be both INIendes and
6484	Khem ; they called Chemmis in Upper
6485	Egypt Panopolis, and gave the capital
6486	of the Mendesian nome to Pan, who
6487	was said by Herodotus (ch. 46) to have
6488	been figiu'ed with the head and legs
6489	of a goat. Unfortunately no monu-
6490	ment remains at Ashmoiin to give the
6491	name and form of the god of INIendes ;
6492	but it is certain that he was not
6493	Khem, the " Pan of Thebes " {Uav
6494	0)7/3o)i/), who had the attributes of
6495	Priapus, and was one of the gi-eat gods.
6496	Mandoo again (or Mimt), whose name
6497	appears to be related to Mendes, had
6498	the head of a hawk: and no god of
6499	the Egyptian Pantheon is represented
6500	with the head and legs of a goat.
6501	The notion is Greek ; and Jablonski
6502	is quite right in saying that Mendes
6503	did not signify a " goat." There is a
6504	tablet in the British ^luseum (Xo.356)
6505	with a goat represented much in the
6506	same manner as an Apis ; but the
6507	legend over it contains no reference to
6508	Mendes. Khem, like the Greek Pan,
6509	was " universal nature ;" and as he
6510	presided over everything generated,
6511	he was the god of vegetable as well
6512	as animal life ; and though the god of
6513	gardens had ^^^th the Greeks another
6514	name, he was really the same deity
6515	under his phallic form. — [G. W.]
p. 99
6516	Chap. 42.
6517	THEBAN LEGEND.
6518	77
6519	sheep instead. The Thebans, and such as imitate them
6520	in their practice, give the following accomit of the
6521	origin of the custom : — " Hercules," they say, " wished
6522	of all things to see Jove, but Jove did not choose
6523	to be seen of him.^ At length, when Hercules per-
6524	sisted, Jove hit on a device — to flay a ram, and,
6525	cutting off his head, hold the head before him, and
6526	cover himself with the fleece. In this guise he showed
6527	himself to Hercules." Therefore the Egyptians give
6528	their statues of Jupiter the face of a ram f and from
6529	them the practice has passed to the Ammonians, who are
6530	a joint colony of Egyptians and Ethiopians, speaking
6531	a language between the two ; hence also, in my opinion,
6532	the latter people took their name of Ammonians, since
6533	the Egyptian name for Jupiter is Amun. Such then is
6534	^ 'i'his fable accords with the sup-
6535	posed meaning of the name of Amun,
6536	which Manetho says was " conceal-
6537	ment ;" hut the reason of the god
6538	liaving the head of an animal would
6539	apply to so many others, that it ceases
6540	to do so to any one in particular.
6541	Hecatajus derived Amun from a word
6542	signifying " come," in allusion to his
6543	being invoked (Plut. de Isid. 5. 9);
6544	and lambliclius says it implies that
6545	which brings to light, or is manifested.
6546	Amoni means " envelope," and amoine
6547	is "come."— [G. W.]
6548	^ See above, notes ^, ^, on ch. 29.
6549	The god Noum (Xou, Noub, or Nef),
6550	with a ram's head, answered to Ju-
6551	piter, and he was the first member
6552	of the Triad of the Cataracts, com-
6553	posed of Noum, Sate, and Anouke'
6554	(Jupiter, Juno, and Vesta). Amun
6555	again was also considered the same as
6556	Jupiter, because he was the King of
6557	the Gods ; and it was from his wor-
6558	ship that Thebes received the name
6559	of Diospolis, " the city of Jove," an-
6560	swering to No-Auiun or Amiin-na of
6561	the Bible (Jer. xlvi. 25 ; Ezek. xxx.
6562	14, 15, 16),
6563	J mak ^ J the Amun-ei (" abode
6564	* A^^^^ I of Amun "),
6565	or Amun-ei Na (" the ^ ,,,,, ^_^
6566	gi-eat abode of Amun," I ■■■ '"♦"'
6567	or " Amun-ei" only?) of i /Ww \|
6568	the sculptures. Amun and Noum,
6569	having both some of the attributes
6570	of Jupiter, naturally became con-
6571	founded by the Greeks ; and the
6572	custom of one god occasionally
6573	receiving the attributes of another
6574	doubtless led them into error. The
6575	greatest interchange, however, was
6576	between Amun and Khem ; but as
6577	this was only at Thebes, and little
6578	kno^\^l to the Greeks, the same mis-
6579	apprehension did not take place, and
6580	Khem by the Greeks was only con-
6581	sidered to be Pan. Yet Pan again
6582	was supposed by them to be Mendes ;
6583	and the two names of Amun and
6584	Amimre, given to the same god,
6585	would probably have perplexed the
6586	Greeks, if they had happened to per-
6587	ceive that additional title of Amun.
6588	It is, however, only right to say that
6589	the Ethiopians frequently gave the
6590	name of Amun to the ram -headed
6591	Noum, and, being their gi-eatest god,
6592	was to them what Jupiter was to
6593	the Greeks. See my note on Book iv.
6594	ch. 18.1.— [G. W J
p. 100
6595	78
6596	SACRIFICE OF A EAM AT THEBES.
6597	Book II.
6598	the reason why the Thebans do not sacrifice rams, but
6599	consider tliem sacred animals. Upon one day in the
6600	year, however, at the festival of Juj)iter, they slay a
6601	single ram, and stripping oif the fleece, cover with it the
6602	statue of that god, as he once covered himself, and then
6603	bring up to the statue of Jove an image of Hercules.
6604	When tliis has been done, the whole assembly beat their
6605	breasts in mourning for the ram, and afterwards bury
6606	him in a holy sepulchre.
6607	43. The account which I received of this Hercules
6608	makes him one of the twelve gods.^ Of the other Her-
6609	cules, with whom the Greeks are familiar, I could hear
6610	nothing in any part of Egypt. That the Greeks, how-
6611	ever (those I mean who gave the son of Amphitryon
6612	* Here again the same confusion
6613	occurs, from the claims of two gods to
6614	the character of Hercules — Khon s, the
6615	third member of the Theban Triad,
6616	and Moui, who is called " Son of the
6617	Sun." The latter was the god of
6618	Sebennytus, where he was known
6619	under the name of Gem, Sem, or
6620	Gemnouti, whence the Coptic appel-
6621	lation of that city Gemnouti. There
6622	was another Heracleopolis, the capital
6623	of a nome of the same name, which
6624	is now marked by the mounds of
6625	i^uasieh, the Hues of the Copts, a
6626	little to the south of the entrance to
6627	the Fyoom. Moui appears to be the
6628	splendour or force of the sun, and
6629	hence the god of power, a divine at-
6630	tribute— the Greek Hercules being
6631	strength, a gift to man. The Egyptian
6632	Hercules was the abstract idea of di-
6633	vine power, and it is not therefore
6634	surprising that Herodotus could learn
6635	nothing of the Greek Hercules, who
6636	was a hero unknown in Egypt. The
6637	connexion between strength and heat
6638	mav be traced even in the Greek ap-
6639	pellation of Hercules. Alcides, his
6640	patronymic (taken from his grand-
6641	father Alca3us), and the name of his
6642	mother Alcma^na, were derived from
6643	aX/07, " strength ;" and Hercules may
6644	even be related to the Semitic har,
6645	harh, "heat,'" or " burning" (analogous
6646	to the Teutonic liar, "fire"), and per-
6647	haps to aor, " light," in Hebrew, or
6648	to the Hor (Horus) of Egypt. The
6649	Etruscans called him Herkle, or Ercle.
6650	In the Hebrew, " Samson " recalls the
6651	name of Sem, the Egyptian Hercules.
6652	Hercules being the sun, the twelve
6653	labours of the later hero may have
6654	been derived from the twelve signs
6655	of the zodiac. Hercules, as Herodotus,
6656	Macrobius, and others state, was par-
6657	ticularly worshipped at Tyre ; " but,"
6658	adds Macrobius, " the Egj-ptians vene-
6659	rate him with the most sacred and
6660	augiist rites, and look upon the period
6661	when his worship was first adopted
6662	by them as beyond the reach of all
6663	memorials. He is believed to have
6664	killed the Giants, when in the cha-
6665	racter of the valour of the gods he
6666	fought in defence of Heaven ;" which
6667	accords with the title of a work called
6668	" Seranuthis," written by Apollonides
6669	or Horapius (in Theophil. Antioch. ad
6670	Autolyc. 2. 6), describing the wars of
6671	the Gods against the Giants, and re-
6672	calls the Egyptian title of the god
6673	of Sebennytus. Cicero mentions one
6674	Hercules who was " Nilogenitus ;"
6675	but Hercules was derived by the
6676	Greeks from the Phoenicians rather
6677	than from Egy]jt. See note ^ on ch.
6678	44, and note ^ ch. 171.— [G. W.]
p. 101
6679	Chap. 43.
6680	GRECIAN AND EGYPTIAN HERCULES.
6681	79
6682	that name), took the name^ from the Egyptians, and
6683	not the Egyptians from the Grreeks,^ is I think clearly
6684	proved, among other arguments, by the fact that both
6685	the parents of Hercules, Amphitryon as well as Alc-
6686	mena, were of Egyptian origin.* Again, the Egyptians
6687	disclaim all knowledge of the names of Neptune and
6688	the Dioscuri,^ and do not include them in the number
6689	of their gods ; but had they adopted the name of any
6690	god from the Grreeks, these would h^ve been the likeliest
6691	to obtain notice, since the Egyptians, as I am well
6692	convinced, practised navigation at that time, and the
6693	Grreeks also were some of them mariners, so that they
6694	would have been more likely to know the names of
6695	these gods than that of Hercules. But the Egyptian
6696	* Herodotus, who derived his know-
6697	ledge of the Egyptian religion from
6698	the professional interpreters, seems to
6699	have regarded the word " Hercules "
6700	as Egyptian. It is scarcely neces-
6701	sary to say that no Egyptian god has
6702	a name from which tliat of Hercules
6703	can by any possibility have been
6704	formed. The word ('HpaKAJjs) seems
6705	to be pure Greek, and has been rea-
6706	sonably enough derived from "Hpa,
6707	" the goddess Juno," and (cAeos "glory "
6708	(see Scott and Liddell's Lexicon, p.
6709	597).
6710	^ See the last note but one. The
6711	tendency of the Greeks to claim an
6712	indigenous origin for the deities they
6713	borrowed from strangers, and to sub-
6714	stitute physical for abstract beings,
6715	readily led them to invent the story
6716	of Hercules, and every dujnus vindice
6717	nodas was cut by the interposition of
6718	his marvellous strength. Even the
6719	Arabs call forth some hero to account
6720	for natural phenomena, or whatever
6721	wonderful action they think right to
6722	attribute to man ; and the opening of
6723	the Straits of Gibraltar is declared by
6724	Edrisi to have been the work of
6725	Alexander the Gi:eat ; any stupendous
6726	building is ascribed to Antar ; and
6727	Solomon (like Melampus in Greek
6728	fable) is supposed to have explained
6729	the language of animals and birds —
6730	a science said by Philostratus to have
6731	been learnt from the Arabs by Apol-
6732	lonius Tyanaeus (i. 14). In order to
6733	account for the discrepancies in the
6734	time when Hercules was supposed to
6735	have lived, the Greeks made out
6736	three, the oldest being the Egyptian,
6737	and the sou of Jove, another of Crete,
6738	and the youngest was the hero, also
6739	a son of Jove. Some Latin writers
6740	(as Varro) increased the number to
6741	forty-three. The Cretan Hercules
6742	was also related to the god of Egypt ;
6743	and the latter, as Moui, was intimately
6744	connected with the funeral rites, and
6745	was generally painted black in the
6746	tombs of Thebes.— [G. W.j
6747	* The parentage of the former was
6748	Alcaius, Perseus, Jupiter and Danae,
6749	Acrisiiis, Abas, I^ynceus (who married
6750	a daughter of Danaus), aEgyptus, the
6751	twin-brother of Danaus, the son of
6752	Belus. Alcmena was daughter of
6753	Electryon, the son of Perseus. This
6754	accords with what Herodotus men-
6755	tions (ch. 91) of Perseus, Danaus, and
6756	Lynceus having been natives of Chem-
6757	mis, and connects them all vdih the
6758	sun.— [G. W.]
6759	^ Herodotus is quite right in saying
6760	that these gods were not in the Egyp-
6761	tian Pantheon. See note "^ on ch. 50 ,
6762	andnote^ch.91.— [G. W.]
p. 102
6763	80
6764	VISIT TO THE TEMPLE AT TYEE.
6765	Book II.
6766	Hercules is one of their ancient gods. Seventeen thou-
6767	sand years before the reign of Amasis, the twelve gods
6768	were, they affirm, produced from the eight : ^ and of
6769	these twelve, Hercules is one.
6770	44. In the wish to get the best information that I
6771	could on these matters, I made a voyage to Tyre in Phoe-
6772	nicia, heariug there was a temple of Hercules at that
6773	place,'' very highly venerated. I visited the temple, and
6774	found it richly adorned wath a number of offerings, among
6775	which were two pillars, one of pure gold, the other of
6776	^ This is the supposed period from
6777	Hercules to Amasis ; and 15,000 were
6778	reckoned from Bacchus to Amasis
6779	(ch. 145). According to Mauetho, the
6780	Egyptians believed that the gods
6781	reigned on earth before men. The
6782	first were Vulcan, the Sun, Agatho-
6783	da^mon, Chronos (Saturn), Osiris,
6784	T}T^)hon (or Seth), Horus (which four
6785	last are found also in this order in the
6786	Turin Papyrus). The royal authority
6787	then contmued through a long suc-
6788	cession to Bytis (or Bites), occupying
6789	Yeais.
6790	13,900 years
6791	Then after the Gods reigned
6792	Heroes
6793	1255
6794	Other kings .... 1817
6795	30 o<Aer(?)Memi)hite kings 1790
6796	10 Thinitcs .... 350
6797	Manes and demigods . . 5813
6798	Years.
6799	13,900
6800	Sum .
6801	Total
6802	11,000, or really 11,025
6803	24,925
6804	which agrees very nearly with the
6805	sum given by Eusebius, from INIanetho,
6806	of 24,900, from the beginning of the
6807	reign of Vulcan to Menes.
6808	Spicellus, again, on the authority of
6809	]\tanetho, gives the reigns of the gods
6810	thus : —
6811	Reigned years. Reduced from
6812	1. Vulcan . . .
6813	727i ..
6814	. 9000
6815	2. Helios . . .
6816	sojt . . .
6817	992
6818	3. Agathod;emon .
6819	56,'i . .
6820	700
6821	4. Chronos .
6822	40i . .
6823	501
6824	5. Osiris and Isis .
6825	35
6826	433
6827	6. 'I'yphon . . .
6828	29
6829	359
6830	7. Horus the demigod 25
6831	309
6832	994 reduced from 1 2,294
6833	Years.
6834	8. Mars the demigod
6835	23
6836	9. Anubis id
6837	17
6838	10. Hercules id. ... ... 15
6839	11. Apollo id
6840	25
6841	12. Amnion id
6842	30
6843	13. Tithoes id
6844	27
6845	14. ZOsos id
6846	32
6847	15. Jupiter id
6848	20
6849	Years reduced lo . . . .189
6850	from about 2338.
6851	In this list the relative positions of
6852	Osiris (Bacchus) and Hercules do not
6853	agi'ee with the statement of Herodotus ;
6854	and in deducting the sums of 12,294
6855	+ fi80 (to the end of Hercules' reign)
6856	= 12,974 from the total rule of the
6857	gods, or 24,925, we have 11,951 years ;
6858	and this added to the 2799 of Manetho's
6859	lists, from Menes to the end of Amasis,
6860	gives 14,750 years, from Hercules, or
6861	15,418 years from Osiris to the end of
6862	Amasis. But it sufficiently ajjpears
6863	from the names in the above list that
6864	it is not even certain the Eg^-ptians
6865	calculated in this manner ; and the
6866	Turin Papyi-us gives, after Horus,
6867	Thoth (who seems to have reigned
6868	7226 years), and Thmei, and appa-
6869	rently Horus (the younger) ; after
6870	whom seems to come the first King
6871	Menes ; or a summation of demi-gods,
6872	followed Iw the name of Menes. It
6873	is however possible that Herodotus
6874	was told of some list similar to the one
6875	above. See Tn. P. K. W., p. 7 to 11.
6876	-[Cx. W.]
6877	^ The temple of Hercules at Tyre was
6878	veiy ancient, and, according to Hero-
6879	dotus, as old as the city itself, or 2300
p. 103
6880	Chap. 44,
6881	THE EMERALD PILLAE.
6882	81
6883	emerald,^ shining- with great brilliancy at night. In a
6884	conversation which I held with the priests, I inquired
6885	how long their temj^le had been built, and found by their
6886	answer that they too differed from the Greeks. They said
6887	that the temple was built at the same time that the city
6888	was foimded, and that the foundation of the city took
6889	place two thousand three hundred years ago. In Tyre I
6890	remarked another temple where the same god was wor-
6891	years before his time, i.e. about 2755
6892	B.C. Hercules presided over it under
6893	the title of Melkartli, or IMelek-Kartha,
6894	" king" (lord) of the city. (See note ^
6895	on ch. 32.) Diodorus also (i. 24) speaks
6896	of the antiqiiity of Hercules ; and liis
6897	antiquity is fully established, in spite
6898	of the doubts of Plutarch. (De Herod.
6899	Mai.). The Pha?uicians settled at the
6900	Isle of Thasos, on account of its gold
6901	mines, which they iirst discovered
6902	there (Herod, vi. 46, 47 ; ApoUodor.
6903	iii. 1), as they were the first to visit
6904	Britain for its tin. Pausanias says the
6905	Thasians being of Phoenician origin,
6906	coming with Agenor and other Phoe-
6907	nicians from Tyre, dedicated a temple
6908	to Hercules at OhTnpia. They wor-
6909	shipped the same Hercules as the
6910	TjTians (Pausan. v. xxv. § 7), and
6911	ApoUodorus (iii. 1) states that Thasos,
6912	son of Poseidon (Xeptune), or, accord-
6913	ing to Pherecydes, of Cilix, going in
6914	quest of Europa, founded the Thracian
6915	Thasus. Phcenix went to Phoenicia,
6916	Cilix to Cilicia, Cadmus and Telephus
6917	to Thrace. The Melcarthus men-
6918	tioned by Plutarch (de Is. s. 15) as a
6919	king of Byblos, and his queen Astarte',
6920	were the Hercules and Astarte' (Venus)
6921	of Syria ; the latter called also Saosis
6922	and Xemanoun, answering to the
6923	Greek name Athenai's. ^Jlie Temple
6924	of Hercules is supposed to have stood
6925	on the hill close to the aqueduct, about
6926	Ij mile east of the modern town,
6927	which last occupies part of insular
6928	Tyre taken by Alexander. The temple
6929	marks the site of the early city. As
6930	the Temple of Hercules at Tyre was
6931	the oldest of that deity in Syria,
6932	so that of Venus Urania, or Astarte,
6933	VOL. II.
6934	at Askalon, was the oldest of that
6935	goddess.
6936	In 2 Maccabees iv. 18, 20, mention
6937	is made of a gi"eat game every fifth
6938	year, kept at Tj're, Avith sacrifices to
6939	Hercules. The absurdity of connect-
6940	ing the name Melicertes with "honey,"
6941	as in the Gnostic PapjTus, is obvious.
6942	(See note ^ on ch. 83.) The sea deity,
6943	Melicertes of Corinth, afterwards called
6944	PaLTmon, was only an adaptation of
6945	a foreign god. The Tyrian Hercules
6946	was originallv the sun, and the same
6947	as Baal, " the lord," which, like Mel-
6948	kartli, was only a title. Hercules and
6949	Venus (Astarte) were really nature
6950	deified, one representing the gene-
6951	rating, or vivifying, and the other the
6952	producing principle : hence the mother
6953	goddess. The sun was chosen as the
6954	emblem of the first, and the earth of
6955	the second, or sometimes the moon,
6956	being looked upon as the companion
6957	of the sun. This nature system will
6958	explain the reason of so many gods
6959	Iraving been connected with the sun
6960	in Egypt and elsewhere ; as Adonis
6961	(Adonai, " our Lord") was the sun
6962	in the AA'inter solstice. — [Gr. W.]
6963	^ This ])illar is mentioned by Theo-
6964	phrastus (Lap. 23), and Pliny (H. N.
6965	xxxvii. 5). The former expresses an
6966	opinion that it was false.
6967	rit was probably of glass, which is
6968	knowTi to have been made in Egj'pt
6969	at least 3800 years ago, having been
6970	found bearing the name of a Pharaoh
6971	of the 18th dynasty. The monu-
6972	ments also of the 4th dynasty show
6973	the same glass bottles (see wood-
6974	cut, n.^, ch. 77) were used then as iii
6975	later times, and glass-blowing is re-
6976	G
p. 104
6977	82
6978	THE THASIAN HEECULES.
6979	Book II.
6980	shipped as the Thasian Hercules. So I Avent on to Thasos,^
6981	where I found a temple of Hercules which had been built
6982	presented in the paintings from the
6983	12th to the 26th dynasty, and
6984	also in those of the 4th at the
6985	tombs near the PjTamids. Various
6986	hues were given to glass by the
6987	Egyptians, and this invention became
6988	Part 1 .
6989	in after times a gi'eat favourite at
6990	Eome, where it was much sought for
6991	ornamental purposes, for bottles and
6992	other common utensils, and even for
6993	A\indows, one of which was discovered
6994	at Pompeii. (Comp. Seneca, Ep. 90 ; de
6995	Part 2
6996	Benef. xii. 9 ; and de Yia, iii. 40.)
6997	The manufacture appears to have been
6998	introduced under the Empire. They
6999	also cut, gi'ound, and engi-aved glass,
7000	and had even the art of introducing
7001	gold between two surfaces of the
7002	sulistance ; specimens of all which I
7003	have, as well as of false pearls from
7004	Tliebes, scarcely to be distinguished
7005	from real ones, if buried the same
7006	number of years. Pliny even speaks
7007	of glass being malleable. The glass of
7008	Egyi)t was long famous (Athen. xi. p.
7009	784 c), and continued so to the time of
7010	theEmpire. Strabo (xvi. p. 1077) men-
7011	tions its many colours, and one very
7012	perfect kind which could only be made
7013	with a particular vitreous earth found
7014	in that country ; and the ruins of glass
7015	furnaces are still seen at the Natron
7016	Lakes. Of all stones, says Pliny, the
7017	emerald was the most easily imitated
7018	(xxvii. 12) ; and the colossus of Sarapiis
7019	in the Egyptian Labyrinth, 9 cubits
7020	(between 13 and ,14 feet) high, and
7021	others mentioned by Pliny (xxxvii. 5)
7022	were doubtless of glass ; like the \idiva
7023	Xvra of Herodotus (infra, ch. 69. See
7024	At. Eg. W. vol. iii. p. 88 to 107.) There
7025	seems every probability that glass was
7026	first invented in Egypt ; and fires
7027	lighted frequently on the sand in a
7028	country producing natron, or subcar-
7029	bonate of soda, would be more likely
7030	to disclose the secret than the solitary
7031	accident of sailors using blocks of
7032	natron for supporting their saucepans
7033	on the sea-shore of Syria, as stated by
7034	Pliny (xxxvi. 65). Pliny's nitrum is
7035	" natron," and the natron district was
7036	called Nitriotis.— G, W.]
7037	^ Thasos, which still retains its
7038	name, is a small island off the
7039	Thracian coast, o]^posite to the mouth
7040	of the Xestus (^Karasii). It seems
7041	to have been a very early Phoenician
7042	settlement (infra, vi. 46-7).
p. 105
7043	Chap. 44. HERCULES THE GOD— HERCULES THE HERO.
7044	83
7045	by the Phoenicians who colonised that island when they
7046	sailed in search of Europa/ Even this was five gene-
7047	rations earlier than the time when Hercules, son of
7048	Amphitryon, was born in Greece. These researches
7049	show plainly that there is an ancient god Hercules ;
7050	and my own opinion is, that those Greeks act most
7051	wisely who build and maintain two temples of Her-
7052	cules,^ in the one of which the Hercules worshipped is
7053	known by the name of Olympian, and has sacrifice
7054	offered to him as an immortal, while in the other the
7055	honours paid are such as are due to a hero.
7056	' This signifies exploriug the "west-
7057	ern lands," Europa being Ereb (the
7058	Arabic gharb'), " the west." It is the
7059	same word as Erebns, or " darkness ;"
7060	and Enropa is said to be x'^P" '''^^
7061	8vaea)s, rj aKoretvi] — Eipcojrdi', aKo-
7062	T€iv6v. (Hesych. comp. Eur. Iph. in
7063	Taur, V, 626.) The same word oc-
7064	curs in Hebrew, where Q'i'y signifies
7065	" mixed," or " grey colour," and is
7066	applied to the evening, and sun-setting,
7067	to the raven and to tlie Arabs ; — " tlie
7068	mingled people (Arabs) that dwell in
7069	the desert." (Jerem. xxv. 20, 24.)
7070	The story of Europa was really Phce-
7071	niciau colonisation, represented as a
7072	princess, carried to Crete, their first
7073	and nearest colony, by Jupiter, under
7074	the form of a bull, Avhere she became
7075	the mother of Minos. Hence Europa
7076	is called by Homer (II. xiv. 321) a
7077	daughter of Phoenix, whom some con-
7078	sider her brother ; and his voyage to
7079	Africa in search of Europa (" the
7080	west") points to Phceuiciau colonisa-
7081	tion there also. There can be no
7082	doubt that the name of the " Arabs "
7083	was also given from their living at the
7084	westernmost part of Asia ; and their
7085	own word Gharl, the " West," is
7086	another form of the original Semitic
7087	name Arab. The Arabs write the two
7088	VJ^
7089	Gharb, »_^£ Arab ; and their
7090	ghordb, " crow," answers to the Hebrew
7091	^'n'y, " raven ;" which last is called by
7092	them (jltordb Nooli, " Noah's crow."
7093	The name Arab, " western," may
7094	either have been given them by a Se-
7095	mitic people who li^'ed more to the
7096	East, or even by themselves. The
7097	Arabs call the North " Shemal" or
7098	"the left," i.e. looking towards sunrise.
7099	The Portuguese title, " Prince of the
7100	Algarves," is from al Oharb, " the
7101	West." The Egyptians called Hades
7102	"Amenti;" and the name for the
7103	" West," Ement, shows the same rela-
7104	tionshijp as between Erebus and the
7105	West. Again, " Hesperia," the Greek
7106	name for Italy, was the " West," like
7107	the fabled gardens of the Hesperides ;
7108	and the Phoenicians, Greeks, and others,
7109	talked of " the West" as we do of
7110	" the East." The name of Cadmus, the
7111	Phoenician who gave letters to Greece,
7112	is of similar import ; and he is a
7113	mythical, not a real, personage. His
7114	name Kadm signifies the " East," as
7115	in Job i. 3, where Beni Kudm are
7116	" sons of the East," and Cadmus was
7117	therefore reputed to be a brother of
7118	Eiu-opa. Kadm, or Kude'em, also sig-
7119	nifies " old" in Hebrew, as in Arabic ;
7120	and the name in this sense too might
7121	apply to Cadmus. In Semitic lan-
7122	guages the East, old, before, to prese^it,
7123	to go forward, a foot, &c., are all re-
7124	lated.—[G, W.]
7125	* Later writers made three (Diod.
7126	Sic. iv. 39), six (Cic. de Nat. Deor.
7127	iii. 16), and even a greater number
7128	of Herculeses. In Greece, however,
7129	temples seem to have been erected
7130	only to two. (See Pausan. v. xiv. § 7 ;
7131	IX, xxvii. § 5, &c.)
7132	G 2
p. 106
7133	84
7134	ATTEMPTED SACRIFICE OF HERCULES.
7135	Book II.
7136	45, The Greeks tell many tales without due investiga-
7137	tion, and among them the following silly fable respecting
7138	Hercules : — " Hercules," they say, " went once to Egypt,
7139	and there the inhabitants took him, and putting a chaplet
7140	on his head, led him out in solemn procession, intending
7141	to offer him a sacrifice to Jupiter. For a while he sub-
7142	mitted quietly ; but when they led him up to the altar,
7143	and began the ceremonies, he piTt forth his strength and
7144	slew them all." Now to me it seems that such a story
7145	proves the Greeks to be utterly ignorant of the character
7146	and customs of the people. The Egyptians do not think
7147	it allowable even to sacrifice cattle, excepting sheep, and
7148	the male kine and calves, provided they be pure, and
7149	also geese. How then can it be believed that they
7150	would sacrifice men ? ^ And again, how would it have
7151	been possible for Hercules alone, and, as they confess, a
7152	mere mortal, to destroy so many thousands ? In saying
7153	thus much concerning these matters, may I inciu^ no
7154	displeasure either of god or hero !
7155	46. I mentioned above that some of the Egyptians
7156	^ Herodotus here denies, with reason,
7157	the possibility of a people with laws,
7158	and a character like those of the
7159	Egyptians, having human sacrifices.
7160	This very aptly refutes the idle tales
7161	of some ancient authors, which, to our
7162	surprise, have even been repeated in
7163	modem times. The absurdity of
7164	Amosis having been the first to abolish
7165	them is glaring, since the Egv^^tians
7166	hadages before been sufficiently civilised
7167	to lay aside their arms, and to have in-
7168	stitutions incompatible with the tole-
7169	ration of a human sacrifice. The
7170	figures of captives on the facades of
7171	the temples slain by the king, often
7172	hastily supposed to be hmiian sacri-
7173	fices, are merely emblematic repre-
7174	sentations of his conquests, which
7175	therefore occur also on the monuments
7176	of the Ptolemies. It is possible that
7177	in their earliest days they may have
7178	had human sacrifices, like the Greeks
7179	and others ; and the sjTubolic group
7180	meaning a "Victim" (supra, n. ^ on ch.
7181	38) may have been derived from that
7182	custom. Some notion may be had of
7183	the antiquity of Egyjitiau civilisation,
7184	if we recollect the period when the
7185	Greeks first went about the city un-
7186	armed, and how far they had advanced
7187	before that took place. The Athenians
7188	were the first Greeks who did this ;
7189	and some wore arms even in the time
7190	of Thucydides. (Thucyd. i. 5.) It is
7191	not long since modern Europe discon-
7192	tinued the custom, and the Dalmatian
7193	peasants are still armed. If Herodotus
7194	had submitted every story of Greek
7195	ciceroni to his own judgment, and had
7196	rejected tliose that were inadmissible,
7197	he would have avoided giving many
7198	false impressions respecting the Egyp-
7199	tians (as in chaps. 46, 121, 126, 131,
7200	and other places). On human sacri-
7201	fices in old times, see note ' on ch.
7202	119.— [G. W.l
p. 107
7203	Chap. 45-47. EGYPTIAiN" DISLIKE OF SWINEHERDS. 85
7204	abstain from sacrificing goats, either male or female.
7205	The reason is the following : — These Egyptians, Avho are
7206	the Mendesians, consider Pan to be one of the eight gods
7207	who existed before the twelve, and Pan is represented in
7208	Egypt by the painters and the sculptors, just as he is in
7209	Greece, with the face and legs of a goat/ They do not,
7210	however, believe this to be his shape, or consider him in
7211	any respect unlike the other gods ; but they represent
7212	him thus for a reason which I prefer not to relate.
7213	The Mendesians hold all goats in veneration, but the
7214	male more than the female, giving the goatherds of
7215	the males especial honour. One is venerated more
7216	highly than all the rest, and when he dies there is a
7217	great mourning throughout all the Mendesian canton.
7218	In Egyptian, the goat and Pan are both called Mendes.
7219	47. The pig is regarded among them as an unclean
7220	animal, so much so that if a man in passing accidentally
7221	touch a pig, he instantly hurries to the river, and
7222	plunges in with all his clothes on. Hence too the
7223	swineherds, notwithstanding that they are of pure
7224	Egyptian blood, are forbidden to enter into any of
7225	the temples, wdiich are open to all other Egyptians ;
7226	and further, no one will give his daughter in marriage
7227	to a swineherd, or take a wife from among them, so that
7228	the swineherds are forced to intermarry among them-
7229	selves. They do not offer swine ^ in sacrifice to any of
7230	* In the original, " with the face of i and it seems only to have heen
7231	a goat, and the legs of a he-goat," \| allowed to others once a year at the
7232	— which seems to be a distinction j fete of the full moon, when it was
7233	without a difference. No Egyptian ' sacrificed to the ]\Ioon. The Moon
7234	God is really represented in this way
7235	(At. Eg. W^' i. p. 260) ; but the goat,
7236	according to some Egyptologers, was
7237	the symbol and representative of
7238	and Bacchus (supposed to be Isis and
7239	Osiris) were the only deities to whom
7240	it was sacrificed, if we maj^ believe
7241	Plutarch, who pretends that this cere-
7242	Khem, the Pan of the Egyptians. ; mony commemorated the finding of
7243	(See Bunsen's Egj^pt, vol. i. p. 374, the body of Osiris by Typhon, when
7244	and compare notes ^ ^ on ch. 42.) he was hunting by the light of the
7245	* The pig is rarely represented in
7246	the sculptures of Thebes. The flesh
7247	was forbidden to the priests, and
7248	to all initiated in the mysteries,
7249	moon. (De Is. s. 18.) Tlie reason of
7250	the meat not being eaten was its im-
7251	wholesomeness, on which account it
7252	was forbidden to the Jews and Mos-
p. 108
7253	86
7254	SWINE SACEIFICED TO THE MOON,
7255	Book II.
7256	their gods, excepting Bacchus and the Moon, whom thej
7257	honour in this way at the same time, sacrificing pigs
7258	to both of them at the same full moon, and afterwards
7259	eating of the flesh. There is a reason alleged by them
7260	for their detestation of swine at all other seasons, and
7261	their use of them at this festival, with which I am well
7262	acquainted, but which I do not think it proper to men-
7263	tion. The following is the mode in which they sacrifice
7264	the swine to the Moon : — As soon as the victim is slain,
7265	the tip of the tail, the spleen, and the caul are put
7266	together, and having been covered with all the fat that
7267	has been found in the animal's belly, are straightway
7268	burnt. The remainder of the flesh is eaten on the same
7269	day that the sacrifice is offered, which is the day of the
7270	full moon : at any other time they would not so much as
7271	taste it. The poorer sort, who cannot afford live pigs,
7272	form pigs of dough, which they bake and offer in sacrifice.
7273	48. To Bacchus, on the eve of his feast, every
7274	Egyptian sacrifices a hog before the door of his house,
7275	which is then given back to the swineherd by whom it
7276	was furnished, and by him carried away. In other
7277	lems ; and the prejudice naturally ex-
7278	tended from the animal to those who
7279	kept it, as at jiresent in India and
7280	other parts of the East, where a Hin-
7281	doo or a Moslem is, like an ancient
7282	Egyptian, defiled by the touch of a
7283	pig, and looks with hori-or on those
7284	who tend it and eat its flesh. On tliis
7285	point a remarkable ditference existed
7286	between the Egyptians and Greeks ;
7287	and most people would scruple to give
7288	to a swineherd the title "divine" (as
7289	Homer does), even though they might
7290	not feel the same amount of prejudice
7291	as the Egyptians. IMgs are not found
7292	in the Egyptian sculptures before the
7293	time of the 18th dynasty ; but this is
7294	no proof that tliey were not known in
7295	Egyyit before that time.— [Gr. W.]
7296	* Plutarch (de Is. ss. 12 and 36), in
7297	speaking of the Paamylia, attributes to
7298	Osiris what really belongs to the god
7299	Khem — the generative principle ; and
7300	Herodotus also evidently alludes to
7301	Osiris on this occasion. The reason
7302	of this may be that the attributes of
7303	various gods were not very distinctly
7304	explained to foreigners, who were
7305	taught nothing Init what was said to
7306	relate to Isis and Osiris, in whose
7307	mysteries several myths were com-
7308	bined, and others added Avhich tended
7309	to mystify rather than to explain
7310	them : for it is evident that the
7311	Greeks did not understand the nature
7312	of the Egyptian gods, arid many of
7313	the events related by them in the
7314	history of Osiris are at variance with
7315	the monuments of Egypt. Bacchus
7316	is certainly the god of the Greeks who
7317	corresponds to Osiris, and liis dying
7318	and rising again, his being put into a
7319	chest and thrown into the sea, and the
7320	instructions he gave to mankind, are
7321	evidently derived from the storj^ of
7322	Osiris ; and the " histories on which
p. 109
7323	Chap. 48.
7324	AND TO BACCHUS.
7325	87
7326	respects the festival is celebrated almost exactly as
7327	Bacchic festivals are in Greece,^ excepting that the
7328	the most solemn feasts of Bacchus,
7329	the Titania and Nuktelia, are founded,
7330	exactly correspond (as Plutarch saj's,
7331	de Is. s. 35) with what are related of
7332	the cutting to ])ieccs of Osiris, of his
7333	rising again, and of his new life."
7334	Wreaths and festoons of ivy, or
7335	rather of the wild convolvulus, or of
7336	the periploca secamone, often appear at
7337	Egjq^tian fetes. For ivy is not a plant
7338	of the Nile, though Plutarch says it
7339	was there called chenosiris, or " plant
7340	of Osiris" (de Is. s. 37 ; Diod. i. 17),
7341	and the leaves being sometimes re-
7342	presented-hairy, are in favour of its
7343	being the secammie (fig. 4). It may
7344	have been chosen from some quality
7345	attributed to its milky juice, like the
7346	soma of India, a juice extracted from
7347	the ascle^nas acidu, which plays a
7348	divine part in the Vedas, and is in the
7349	Zend-Avesta of Persia. (See Jour.
7350	Americ. Or.Soc. vol. iii. No. 2, p. 299.)
7351	The thyrsus is shown by Plutarch
7352	to be the staff (fig. 1), often bound by
7353	a fillet, to which the spotted skin of a
7354	leopard is suspended near the figure of
7355	Osiris ; for it is the same that the high
7356	priest, clad in the leopard skin dress,
7357	carries in the jorocessions (Plut. de Is.
7358	s. 35). Another form of it is the
7359	head of a water-plant (similar to that
7360	in fig. 3), to which Athenams (Deipn.
7361	V. p. 196) evidently alludes when he
7362	speaks of some columns having the
7363	form of palm-trees, and others of the
7364	thyrsus.
7365	Tlie adoption of the pine-cone to
7366	head the .spear of Bacchus originated
7367	in the use of the resinous matter put
7368	.into wine-skins, and afterwards into
7369	amidioraj ; but the thrysus was also
7370	represented as a spear having its
7371	point " concealed in ivy -leaves : "
7372	" Pampineis agitat velatam frondibus
p. 110
7373	88
7374	CEREMONY
7375	Book II.
7376	Egyptians have no choral dances.'' They also use in-
7377	stead of phalli another invention, consisting of images
7378	a cubit high, pulled by strings, which the women carry
7379	round to the villages. A piper goes in front,^ and the
7380	women follow, singing hymns in honour of Bacchus.
7381	hastam." (Ovid, Met. iii. 667 ; comp.
7382	xi. 27, &c. Diodor. iii. 64. Athen.
7383	Deipn. xiv. 631 A.) Tluis the poets
7384	generally describe it, as well as the
7385	paintings on Greek vases ; and if the
7386	l^ine-cone was preferred for statues
7387	of Bacchus, that was probably from
7388	its being better suited to sculpture.
7389	The resemblance of the nehris, and
7390	the Semitic name of the leopard,
7391	nimr, is striking, the car of Bacchus
7392	being drawn by leopards ; and Bochart
7393	points to the analogy between ISTe-
7394	brodes, a title of Bacchus and Nim-
7395	rod, who is called by Philo-Juda;us
7396	"Nebrod." The pine-cone was adopted
7397	by the Arabs as an ornament in archi-
7398	tecture at an early time, and passed
7399	thence to Cashmire shawls and em-
7400	broidery.—[G. W.]
7401	' The reading x°P^^ ti^re is pre-
7402	ferable to xoi-p'^i', for the Greeks did
7403	sacrifice a pig at the festivals of Bac-
7404	chus, as their authors and sculptures
7405	show. The rpiTTva consisted of an
7406	ox, a sheep, and a pig, like the Roman
7407	suovetaurilia ; and Eiistathius on
7408	Horn. Od. xs* 156, says the Ithacans
7409	sacrificed three pigs at the feast of the
7410	new moon. — [G. W.]
7411	^ The instrument used was pro-
7412	bably the double-pipe ; but some con-
7413	sider it the flute (properly the TrXa-
7414	yiavXos, or ohliqua tihici), which was
7415	also an Egyptian instrument. It was
7416	played by men (fig. 8 ; and woodcut in
7417	n. \ ch. 58, figs. 3, 5), but the double-
7418	pipe more frequently by women (see
7419	woodcut No. m. fig. 3.) The latter
7420	was a very common instrument with
7421	the Greeks, and its noisy and droning
7422	tones are still kept up in the Zumdra
7423	of modern Egypt. The flute, however,
7424	was a common instrument in Egypt
7425	on sacred occasions (see woodcut in n. \
7426	ch. 58), and oneor more musical instru-
7427	ments were present at every Egyptian
7428	procession. The clapping of hands and
7429	the crotala, the taml)Ourine, and the
7430	harp, were also commonly introduced
7431	on festive occasions, as well as the
7432	voice, which sometimes accompanied
7433	two harps, a single pipe, and a flute ;
7434	and when soldiers attended, they had
7435	the trumpet and drum (woodcut No.
7436	II. figs. 1, 2). A greater variety of in-
7437	No II.
7438	it
p. 111
7439	Chap. 48.
7440	OP THE IMAGE.
7441	89
7442	Tliey give a religious reason for the peculiarities of
7443	the image.
7444	struments was admitted to private
7445	parties ; the harp of four, six, seven,
7446	to twenty-two strings ; the guitar of
7447	three ; the lyre of five, seven, ten, and
7448	eighteen strings ; the double pipe, the
7449	flute, the square and the round tam-
7450	bourine, the crotala or wooden clappers,
7451	were very common there; but cymlials
7452	appear to have been mostly used by
7453	the minstrels of certain deities. The
p. 112
7454	90
7455	MELAMPUS TAUGHT THE GREEKS
7456	Book II.
7457	49. Melampus,^ the son of Amytlieon, cannot (I think)
7458	have been ignorant of this ceremony — nay, he must,
7459	lyres were of very varied sharp tone,
7460	and they ma\' he supposed to answer
7461	to the nahl, samhuc, and " ten"-
7462	strinired ashur of the Jews. The
7463	25), and other ancient writers. The
7464	sistrum was peculiarly a sacred in-
7465	strument, and it was to the queen and
7466	princesses that its use was entrusted,
7467	or to other ladies of rank who held the
7468	No. IV.
7469	varieties of lyres in Nos. IV., V., and
7470	A^I. may serve to illustrate some of the
7471	numerous instruments mentioned by
7472	Julius Pollux (iv. 9), Athenteus (iv.
7473	No. V.
7474	important office of accompanying the
7475	king or the high priest, while making
7476	libations to the gods. See above, note *
7477	on ch. 35, and At. Eg. W. vol. ii. p. 222
7478	to 327 on the music and instruments
7479	of the Egjrptians.— [G. W.]
7480	No. VI.
p. 113
7481	Chap, 49.
7482	THE WOESHIP OF BACCHUS.
7483	91
7484	I should conceive, have been well acquainted with it.
7485	He it was who introduced into Greece the name of
7486	Bacchus, the ceremonial of his worship, and the pro-
7487	cession of the phallus. He did not, however, so com-
7488	pletely apprehend the whole doctrine as to be able to
7489	communicate it entirely, but various sages since his time
7490	have carried out his teaching to greater perfection.
7491	Still it is certain that Melampus introduced the phallus,
7492	and that the Greeks learnt from him the ceremonies
7493	which they now practise. I therefore maintain that
7494	Melampus, who was a wise man, and had acquired the
7495	art of divination, having become acquainted with the
7496	worship of Bacchus through knowledge derived from
7497	Egypt, introduced it into Greece, with a few slight
7498	changes, at the same time that he brought in various
7499	other practices. For I can by no means allow that it is
7500	by mere coincidence that the Bacchic ceremonies in
7501	Greece are so nearly the same as the Egyptian — they
7502	would then have been more Greek in their character,
7503	and less recent in their origin. Much less can I admit
7504	that the Egyptians borrowed these customs, or any
7505	other, from the Greeks. My belief is that Melampus
7506	got his knowledge of them from Cadmus the Tyrian,
7507	and the followers whom he brought from Phoenicia
7508	into the country which is now called Boeotia.^
7509	• * Either Melampus, as some main-
7510	tain, really existed, and travelling
7511	into Eg}'P^5 broiiglit back certain cere-
7512	monies into Greece, or he was an
7513	imaginary personage ; and the fable
7514	was intended to show that the Greeks
7515	borrowed some of their religious cere-
7516	monies from Egypt. This name
7517	"blackfoot" would then have been
7518	invented to show their origin. The
7519	name of Egypt, Chemi, signified
7520	" black."— [G. W.]
7521	' The settlement of a body of Pho3-
7522	nicians in the country called afterwards
7523	BcGOtia, is regarded by Herodotus as
7524	an undoubted fact. (See, besides the
7525	present passage, v. 57-8, where the
7526	Gephyrasans are referred to this mi-
7527	gi-ation.) He does not, however, seem
7528	to have had a very distinct notion as
7529	to the course by which the strangers
7530	reached Greece (compare ii. 44, wth
7531	iv. 147). Some moderas, as C. O.
7532	lliiller (Orchom. ch. iv. pp. 11.3-122),
7533	Welcker (Ueber eine Kretische Colonic
7534	in Theben), and Wachsmuth (Antiq.
7535	i. 1. § 11), entirely discredit the
7536	whole story of a Phoenician settlement,
7537	which they regard as the invention of
7538	a late era. Others, as Mr. Grote (Hist,
7539	of Greece, vol. ii, p. 357), profess their
7540	inability to determine the question.
7541	But the weight of modern authority
7542	is in favour of the truth of the tra-
p. 114
7543	92
7544	NAMES OF THE GREEK GODS FROM EGYPT. Book II.
7545	50. Almost all the names of the gods came into
7546	Greece from Egypt. ^ My inquiries prove that they
7547	were all derived from a foreign source, and my
7548	opinion is that Egypt furnished the greater number.
7549	dition. (See Niebuhr's Lectures on
7550	Ancient History, vol. 1. p. 80 ; Thirl-
7551	wall's Hist, of Greece, vol. i. cli. 3,
7552	pp. 68-9 ; Kenrick's Phoenicia, jij^.
7553	98-100 ; Biihr, note on Herod, v. 57,
7554	&c.) The principal arguments on this
7555	side are the following : — 1. The unani-
7556	mous tradition. 2. The fact that
7557	there was a race called Cadmeians at
7558	Thebes from very early times, claim-
7559	ing a Phosnician descent, combined
7560	with the further fact, that " Cad-
7561	meian" would bear in the Phoenician
7562	tongue a meaning unintelligible to
7563	mere Greeks, but which in the early
7564	legend it was certainly intended to
7565	have, — Cadmus coming in search of
7566	Europe being clearly D\|lp. Kedem,
7567	" the East," seeking to discover 3iy
7568	Ereh, " the West." 3. The fact that
7569	the early worship at Thebes was that
7570	of Phoenician deities, as the Cabiri
7571	(see note ^ on ch. 51), and Minerva
7572	Onca (Cf. Pausan. ix. xii. § 2, and
7573	XXV. § 6 ; ^schyl. S. c. Th. 153 and
7574	496 ; Euphorion ap. Steph. Byz. ad
7575	voc. 'OyKalai ; Hesych. ad voc. "Oyya,
7576	&c.). And, 4. The occurrence of a
7577	number of Semitic words in the pro-
7578	vincial dialect of Bceotia, as 'Ekuvs
7579	for Zeii? or the Supreme God (compare
7580	Heb. m'?K "God"); ^awa, "woman"
7581	or "girl"' (Heb. n:3 "woman" or
7582	" daughter ") ; dxavrj (compare the
7583	X!I3 of the Talmud), a measure of
7584	capacity which the Persians and Boeo-
7585	tians seem both to have adopted from
7586	the Phoenicians (cf. Aristoph. Acharn.
7587	108, Hesych. ad voce, dxam] and
7588	dxdvas, Pollux, x. 164), al8a "a pome-
7589	granate" (comp. Arabic sidra), &c.
7590	The name Thebes itself is also tole-
7591	rably near to Y2T\ Thehez (Judg. ix.
7592	50), a Canaanite town, which the
7593	LXX. call Qrj^r]s, though this resem-
7594	blance may be accidental. Bochart,
7595	however, identifies the tv;o names, and
7596	regards Thebes as so called from its
7597	"mud," Y'2, since it was situated in a
7598	marsh. (See his Geograph. Sac. Part.
7599	II. book i. ch. 16.) The cumulative
7600	force of these arguments must be
7601	allowed to be very-great.
7602	^ See below, note ^ on ch. 51. There
7603	is no doubt that the Greeks borrowed
7604	sometimes the names, sometimes the
7605	attributes, of their deities from Egypt;
7606	but when Herodotus says the names
7607	of the Greek gods were always known
7608	in Egj'pt, it is evident that he does
7609	not mean tliey were the sa7ne as the
7610	Greek, since he gives in other places
7611	(chaps. 42, 59, l38, 144, 156) the
7612	Egyptian name to which those very
7613	gods agree, whom he mentions in
7614	Egypt. Neptune, the Dioscuri, the
7615	Graces, and Nereids, were certainly not
7616	Egyptian deities ; but Juno was Sate,
7617	Vesta Anouke, and Themis was not
7618	only an Egjqrtian goddess, but her
7619	name was taken from Thmei, the
7620	Egyptian goddess of " Justice" or
7621	" Truth ;" from which the Hebrew de-
7622	rived the word Thummim, translated
7623	in the Septuagint by d\r]6fia. The
7624	name Nereids was evidently borrowed
7625	from the idea of "water ;" and though
7626	the word is only traced in vrjpos,
7627	" moist," in Nereus, the Nereids,
7628	vapos, " liquid," and some other words
7629	in ancient Greek, it has been retained
7630	to the present day, through some old
7631	provincialism, and vfpov, or veppo, still
7632	signifies " water " in the Romaic of
7633	modern Greece. Comp. the Indian
7634	name for " water," and the divine
7635	spirit, NarayariQi), i. e. " floating on
7636	the waters" at the beginning of time
7637	in Hindoo mythology ; also the Ner-
7638	budda, &c., and nahr, " river," in
7639	Arabic. One of the Greek Vulcans
7640	mentioned by Cicero (de Nat. Deor.
7641	iii. 22) " was the Egyptian Phthas ;"
7642	one sun was tlie god of Heliopolis
7643	(ibid. 21), and other deities wei'e from
7644	the same Pantheon. — [G. W.J
p. 115
7645	Chap. 50, 51. EGYPTIANS PAY NO HONOURS TO HEROES.
7646	93
7647	For with the exception of NejDtune and the Dioscuri,^
7648	whom I mentioned above, and Juno, Yesta, Themis,
7649	the Graces, and the Nereids, the other gods have been
7650	known from time immemorial in Egypt. This I assert
7651	on the authority of the Egyptians themselves. The
7652	gods, with whose names they profess themselves un-
7653	acquainted, the Greeks received, I believe, from the
7654	Pelasgi, except Neptune. Of him they got their know-
7655	ledge from the Libyans,* by whom he has been always
7656	honoured, and who were anciently the only peoj^le that
7657	had a god of the name. The Egyptians differ from the
7658	Greeks also in paying no divine honours to heroes.^
7659	51. Besides these which have been here mentioned,
7660	there are many other practices whereof I shall speak
7661	hereafter, which the Greeks have borrowed from Egypt.^
7662	The peculiarity, however, which they observe in their
7663	' Comp. tlietwo deities^ffiH, Laving
7664	no particular names, but called simply
7665	Arvinau, "tlie two horsemen," found
7666	in the Vedas of India and in the Zend-
7667	Avesta. (Jour. Americ. Or. Soc.
7668	vol. iii. No. 2, p. 322.)— [G. W.l
7669	' Cf. iv. 188.
7670	5 Herodotus is quite correct in say-
7671	ing the Egyptians jiaid no divine
7672	honours to heroes, and their creed
7673	would not accord with all the second
7674	and third lines of the Golden Verses
7675	of Pythagoras :
7676	'Aflai-aTOVS fx-iv Trpwra Seov^ vofxtiy tos 5id)C6tvTai
7677	Tt/xa' Kai ae^ov opKOv' eiretT' ''Hptoa? ayavov^,
7678	Tous T€ KaTa;^9oi'(oi;s crcjSe Sat'/u.oi'as, evvoixa pefojc.
7679	No Egyi^tian god was supposed to
7680	have lived on earth as a mere man
7681	afterwards deified (infra, n. ^, ch. 143) ;
7682	and the tradition of Osiris having lived
7683	on earth implied that he was a mani-
7684	festation or Avatar of the Deity —
7685	not a real being, but the abstract idea
7686	of goodness (like the Indian Booddha).
7687	The religion of the Egyptians was
7688	the worship of the Deity in all his
7689	attributes, and in those things which
7690	were thought to partake of his essence ;
7691	but they did not transfer a mortal
7692	man to his place, though they allowed
7693	a king to pay divine honours to a de-
7694	ceased predecessor, or even to himself,
7695	his human doing homage to his di-
7696	vine nature. The divine being was
7697	like the Diviis Imperator of the Ro-
7698	mans ; and a respect was felt for him
7699	when good, which made them sacrifice
7700	all their dearest interests for his ser-
7701	vice : he w^as far above all mortals, as
7702	the head of the religion and the state ;
7703	celebrated with
7704	(Diodor. i. 71,
7705	and his funeral v\'as
7706	unusual ceremonies.
7707	72.) But this was not divine worshij:).
7708	They did however commit the error of
7709	assigning to emblems a degree of vene-
7710	ration, as representatives of deities,
7711	which led to gross superstition, as types
7712	and relics have often done ; and though
7713	the Moslems forbid all "partnership"
7714	with the Deity in adoration, even they
7715	cannot always prevent a bigoted vene-
7716	ration for a saint, or for the supposed
7717	footstep of " the Prophet."— [G. W.]
7718	* We cannot too much admire the
7719	candour of Herodotus in admitting that
7720	the Greeks borrowed from the Egyp-
7721	tians, and others who preceded them ;
7722	for, as Bacon justly observes, "the
7723	writings that relate these fables, being
7724	not delivered as inventions of the
7725	writers, but as things before believed
7726	and received, appear like a soft whisper
p. 116
7727	94
7728	GREEK RELIGION DERIVED IN PART
7729	Book II.
7730	statues of Mercury they did not derive from the Egyp-
7731	tians, but from the Pelasgi ; from them the Athenians
7732	first adopted it, and afterwards it passed from the Athe-
7733	nians to the other Grreeks. For just at the time when
7734	the Athenians were entering into the Hellenic hody,^
7735	the Pelasgi came to live with them in their country,^
7736	whence it was that the latter came first to be regarded
7737	as Greeks. Whoever has been initiated into the mys-
7738	teries of the Cabiri^ will understand what I mean.
7739	from the traditions of more ancient
7740	nations, conveyed through tlie flutes
7741	of the Grecians."
7742	Diodorus (i. 96) makes the same re-
7743	mark, and affirms that " Orpheus in-
7744	troduced from Egypt the greatest part
7745	of liis mythical ceremonies, the orgies
7746	that celebrate the wanderings of Ceres,
7747	and the whole fable of the shades be-
7748	low. The rites of Osiris and Bacchus
7749	were the same ; the punishment of the
7750	wicked, the Elysian Fields, and all the
7751	common fictions, were copied from the
7752	Egyptian funerals ;" and he says the
7753	same of the Acherv;sian lake, Charon,
7754	Styx, and " many other things men-
7755	tioned in fable." Herodotus expressly
7756	gives it as his opinion that nearly all
7757	the names of the gods were derived
7758	from Egypt, and shows that their
7759	ceremonies (chaps. 81, 82) and science
7760	come from the same source. This is
7761	also stated by many ancient writers.
7762	Lucian (de Dea Syr.) says " the
7763	Egyptians are reputed the first men
7764	who had a notion of the gods and a
7765	knowledge of sr.cred afl'airs, . . . and
7766	sacred names." The same is men-
7767	tioned by the oracle of Apollo quoted
7768	by Eusebius. Comp. lamblichus (de
7769	Myst. s. 7, ch., v.), and others. Aris-
7770	totle (de Coilo, ii. 12) shows the obli-
7771	gations of the Greeks to the Egyptians
7772	and Babylonians for information re-
7773	specting all the heavenly bodies ; and
7774	these two people are mentioned by
7775	Cicero (de Div. i. 42), Pliny (vii. 56),
7776	and others as the great and earliest
7777	astronomers. Herodotus (supra, ch. 4)
7778	ascribes to the Egyptians the inven-
7779	tion of the year, as well as geometry ;
7780	and Macrobius savs that Ca:sar was
7781	indebted to Egypt for his correction
7782	of the calendar : " Nam Julius Cajsar
7783	.... siderum motus . . . . ab -(Egyptiis
7784	disciplinis hausit." (Saturn, i. 18.)
7785	Strabo (xvi. p. 1076 ; xvii. p. 1118)
7786	ascribes astronomy and arithmetic to
7787	the Sidonians, and the origin of them to
7788	night sailing and reckonings at sea, as
7789	geology to the Egyptians, from which
7790	two people they went to Greece ; and
7791	Pliny (v. 12) says the Phcenicians in-
7792	vented letters, astronomy, and naval
7793	and warlike arts. (Comp. Pomp.
7794	Mela, i. 12.) Diodorus (i. 98) states
7795	" that Pythagoras learnt holy lore, geo-
7796	metry, the science of numbers, and
7797	the transmigration of souls into animals
7798	from Egypt . . . and (Enopides derived
7799	the obliquity of the sun's path from
7800	the priests and astronomers there."
7801	(Comp. Pint. PI. Ph. iii. 13. See note
7802	onch. 109, inApp. CH.vii.) Diodorus
7803	(i. 81, and 28) even thinks " the Chal-
7804	da;ans obtained their knowledge of
7805	astrology (astronomy) from the priests
7806	of Egypt ;" but, on the other hand,
7807	Josephus states that " it went from
7808	the Chalda?ans to Egypt, whence it
7809	proceeded to Greece." (See n. % ch.
7810	123, and App. ch. vii.)— [G. W.]
7811	'' Vide supra, i. 57, and 58, note ^.
7812	^ The Pelasgi here intended are the
7813	Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, who are men-
7814	tioned again, iv. 145, and vi. 138.
7815	(See Thucyd. iv. 109 ; and cp. Ap, to
7816	B. vi.)
7817	^ Nothing is known for certain re-
7818	specting the Cabiri. Most authorities
7819	agree that they varied in number, and
7820	that their worship, which was very
7821	ancient in Samothrace and in Phrj-gia,
7822	was carried to Greece from the former
p. 117
7823	Chap. 52.
7824	FROM THE PELASGI.
7825	95
7826	The Samotliracians received these mysteries from the
7827	Pelasgi, who, before they went to live in Attica, were
7828	dwellers in Samothrace, and imparted their religious
7829	ceremonies to the inhabitants. The Athenians, then,
7830	who were the first of all the Greeks to make their
7831	statues of Mercury in this way, learnt the practice from
7832	the Pelasgians ; and by this people a religious account
7833	of the matter is given, which is explained in the Samo-
7834	thracian mysteries.
7835	52. In early times the Pelasgi, as I know by inform-
7836	ation which I got at Dodona, offered sacrifices of all
7837	kinds, and prayed to the gods, but had no distinct
7838	names or appellations for them, since they had never
7839	heard of any. They called them gods (6eol, disposers),
7840	because they had disposed and arranged all things in
7841	by the Pelasgi'. Some believe them
7842	to have been Ceres, Proserpine, and
7843	Phito ; and others add a fourth, sup-
7844	posed to be Hermes ; while others
7845	suppose them to have been Jupiter,
7846	Pallas, and Hermes. They were also
7847	worshipped at an early time in Lem-
7848	nos and Imbros. Some think they
7849	were an inferior order of gods, but
7850	were probably in the same manner as
7851	the third order of gods in Egypt, who
7852	in one capacity ranked even above the
7853	great gods. The name Cabiri was
7854	doubtless derived from the Semitic
7855	word Jcabir, "great," a title applied to
7856	Astarte (Venus), who was also wor-
7857	shipped in Samothrace, together with
7858	Pothos and Phaeton, in the most holy
7859	ceremonies, as Pliny says (xxxvi. 5).
7860	The eight great gods of the Phoe-
7861	nicians, the offspring of one great
7862	father, Sydik, the "just," were called
7863	Cabiri, of whom Esmoun was the
7864	youngest, or the eighth (as his
7865	name implies), the shmoun, " eight,"
7866	of Coptic, and the " theman" or
7867	" saman " ..l^j of Arabic, and
7868	i^yOli^ of Hebrew. This Esmoun was
7869	also called Asclepins. Damascius
7870	says, "On 6 fv JiripvTcp cfirjaiv 'Ao-kX»j-
7871	TTios ovK eariu ' EWr]v ov8e AiyvnTios
7872	aXkd Tis iiTLxoopios ^oivi^. ^advKco
7873	yap fyeuovTO naides ovs AioaKovpovs
7874	epfirjvevovai Koi Kajieipovs. Ovtos
7875	KoXXitrTOi S)v deav ical veavlas I8flp
7876	a^idyaaros, ipwjxevos yeyovev, as ^rjcriv
7877	6 fiiidos, 'Acrrpovorjs 6fov ^oiviacrris,
7878	p.rjTp6s dfcbv. Eladcos re Kwriyerelv iv
7879	Toicrhe rals vaTvais eweidri ededaaTo Trjv
7880	aeov avTov eKKVvrjyeTovaav koi (jievyovTa
7881	emdiuiKovcrau koi rj8r] Karak-q-^opievrjv,
7882	anoTep,vfi neXtKet ttjv avTos avToii
7883	TraiboaTTOpov cf)vcnv- 'H 8e rco Trddei
7884	TTfpiaXyrjcracra KolIIaimva KoKea-acra tov
7885	veavLcxKov rfi re ^woyoi/w depfirj dva^conv-
7886	ptjcraaa deov enoirjcrei', ' E(rp.ovvov vtto
7887	^oivLKcov uivojxacrp.ivov eVl rfj Qepp.r] Tr]s
7888	^oir]s. Ot 6e Tov ''Eap.ovvov o-ySooi/
7889	a^Lovcriv (pp.rjvevfLV, on oySooy rjv tS
7890	2advK(a Tra'is. Damascii Vit. Isidori
7891	(a Photio Excerpt.), 302. This men-
7892	tion of Esmoun with Palestine reminds
7893	us of the account in the Bible that
7894	the Philistines came of an Egyptian
7895	stock. Ashmoun would thus be made a
7896	son of Mizraim (comp. Sanchoniatho),
7897	as in Arab tradition. Herodotus men-
7898	tions the Egyptian Cabiri at Memphis
7899	(iii. 37), whose temple no one was per-
7900	mitted to enter except the priest alone :
7901	they were said to be sons of Vulcan
7902	or Pthah (as the Egyiitian Asclejiius
7903	called Eiiieph, ov Aiaiutlipli, also was).
p. 118
7904	96
7905	TELA SGI ADOPT THE EGYPTIAN GODS.
7906	Book II.
7907	such a beautiful order/ After a long lapse of time the
7908	names of the gods came to Greece from Egypt, and the
7909	Pelasgi learnt them, only as yet they knew nothing of
7910	Bacchus, of whom they first heard at a much later date.
7911	Not long after the arrival of the names they sent to
7912	consult the oracle at Dodona about them. This is the
7913	most ancient oracle in Greece, and at that time there
7914	was no other. To their question, " Whether they
7915	should adopt the names that had been imported from
7916	the foreigners ? " the oracle replied by recommending
7917	their use. Thenceforth in their sacrifices the Pelasgi
7918	made use of the names of the gods, and from them the
7919	names passed afterwards to the Greeks.
7920	and, like that god in one of his charac-
7921	ters, were rejiresented as pigmy figures.
7922	It is not impossible that the Cabiri in
7923	Egypt were figured as the god Pthah-
7924	Sokar-Osiris, who was a deity of
7925	fiades ; and the three names he had
7926	agree with the supposed number of
7927	the Cabiri of Samothrace. The number
7928	8 might also be thought to accord
7929	with that of the eight great gods of
7930	Egypt. (See my note on B. iii. ch. 37.)
7931	Oshmoimayn, the Coptic and modern
7932	name of Hermopolis in Egypt, signify-
7933	ing the " two eights," was connected
7934	with the title of Tlioth or Hermes,
7935	" lord of the eight regions." — [G. W.]
7936	^ The same derivation is given by
7937	Eustathius (ad Horn. II. p. 1148-51),
7938	and by Clement of Alexandria (Strom.
7939	i. 29, p. 427), but the more general
7940	belief of the Greeks derived the word
7941	6f6s from de7v, " currere," because the
7942	Gods first worshipped were the sun,
7943	moon, and stars. (See Plat. Cratvl.
7944	p. 397, C. D. Etym. Magn. ad voc.
7945	Beos, Clemens. Alex. Cohort, ad Gent,
7946	p. 22, Strom, iv. 23, p. G33.) Both
7947	these derivations are pm-ely fanciful,
7948	having reference to the Greek language
7949	onl}^ whereas 6e6s is a form of a very
7950	ancient word common to a numlier of
7951	the Indo-European tongues, and not
7952	to be ex])lained from any one of them
7953	singl}'. The earliest form of the word
7954	would seem to be the Doric and J*]olic
7955	28eus, afterwards written Zevs. This,
7956	by omission of the cr, became Sans.
7957	By cms and (leva, Gk. Aeuj, Ato's, and
7958	hlos, Lat. Deus and divus, Lithuanian
7959	diewas, &c. Qeos is a mere softened
7960	fonn of Aevs or deus, analogous to
7961	yj/ev^os, yjrvdos ; 6aa>, Sanscr. dlie ;
7962	ddpaco, dare ; Bepa, dry ; 6vpa, door ;
7963	&c. With the words Zevs and Oeos we
7964	may connect the old German God Zio,
7965	or Tins, whose name under the latter
7966	of the forms appears in our word
7967	Tuesday. Sanscrit scholars trace these
7968	many modifications of a single word
7969	to an old root div, which they tell us
7970	means " to shine," and Dyaiis, the
7971	first substantive formed from this
7972	verb, meant " light," or " the shining
7973	sun," one of the earliest objects of
7974	worship in most countries. Deva is a
7975	later formation from div, and has a
7976	more abstiact sense than dyatts, being
7977	" bright, brilliant, divine," and thence
7978	passing on to the mere idea of God.
7979	Qeos in Greek, and Dens in Latin, are
7980	the exact equivalents of this term.
7981	(See Professor Max Miiller's article on
7982	Comparative Philology in the Edin-
7983	burgh Review, No. 192, Art. 1. pp.
7984	334-8.)
7985	The statement of Herodotus that
7986	the Pelasgi " called the Gods 6fo\,
7987	because they had disposed and arranged
7988	all things in such a beautiful order,"
7989	shows that he considered them to have
7990	s]ioken a language nearly akin to the
7991	Greek.
p. 119
7992	Chap. 53, 54. CONNEXION OP DODONA WITH EGYPT.
7993	97
7994	53. Whence tlie gods severally sprang, whether or no
7995	they had all existed from eternity, what forms they bore
7996	— these are questions of which the Greeks knew
7997	nothing until the other day, so to speak. For Homer
7998	and Hesiod were the first to compose Theogonies, and
7999	give the gods their epithets, to allot them their several
8000	ofifices and occupations, and describe their forms ; and
8001	they lived but four hundred years before my time,^ as I
8002	believe. As for the poets, who are thought by some to
8003	be earlier than these, ^ they are, in my judgment, de-
8004	cidedly later writers. In these matters I have the
8005	authority of the priestesses of Dodona for the former
8006	portion of my statements ; what I have said of Homer
8007	and Hesiod is my own opinion.
8008	54. The following tale is commonly told in Egypt
8009	concerning the oracle of Dodona in Greece, and that
8010	of Amnion, in Libya. My informants on the point were
8011	the priests of Jupiter at Thebes. They said " that two
8012	of the sacred women were once carried off from Thebes
8013	by the Phoenicians,* and that the story went that one
8014	* The date of Homer has been va-
8015	riously stated. It is plain from the
8016	expressions which Herodotus here uses
8017	that in his time the general belief as-
8018	si2;ned to Homer an earlier date than
8019	that which he considered the true
8020	one. His date would place the poet
8021	about B.C. 8bO-S30, which is very
8022	nearly the mean between the earliest
8023	and the latest epochs that are as-
8024	signed to him. I'he earliest date
8025	that can be exactly determined, is
8026	that of the author of the life of
8027	Homer usually published wnth the
8028	works of Herodotus, who places the
8029	birth of the poet G22 years before
8030	the invasion of Xerxes, or B.C. 1102.
8031	The latest is that of Theopompus
8032	and Euphorion, which makes him
8033	contemporary with Gyires — therefore
8034	B.C. 724-G86. (For further parti-
8035	culars, see Clinton's F. H. vol. i.
8036	pp. 145-7 ; and Ap. p. 359.) Proba-
8037	bility is on the whole in favour of
8038	VOL. n.
8039	a date considerably earlier than that
8040	assigned by our author.
8041	The time of Hesiod is even more
8042	doubtful, if possible, than that of his
8043	brother-poet. He was made before
8044	Homer, after him, and contemporary
8045	with him. Internal evidence and the
8046	weight of authority are in favour of the
8047	view which assigns him a compara-
8048	tively late date. (See Clinton, i. p. 359,
8049	n. ".) He is proliably to be placed at
8050	least 200 or 300 years after Homer.
8051	^ The " poets thought bj' some to
8052	be earlier than Homer and Hesiod "
8053	are probably the mystic writers, Olen,
8054	Linus, Orpheus, j\Iusa'us, Pamphos,
8055	Olympus, &c., who were generally
8056	accounted by the Greeks anterior to
8057	Homer (Clinton, i. pp. 341-4), but
8058	seem really to have belonged to a later
8059	age. (See Grote, vol. ii. p. 161.)
8060	•* See the next note. This carrying
8061	off priestesses from Thebes is of course
8062	a fable. It may refer to the sending
p. 120
8063	98
8064	MYTH OF THE TWO BLACK DOVES.
8065	Book 11.
8066	of them was sold into Libya, and tlie other into Greece,
8067	and these women were the first founders of the oracles
8068	in the two countries." On my inquiring how they
8069	came to know so exactly what became of the women,
8070	they answered, " that diligent search had been made
8071	after them at the time, but that it had not been found
8072	possible to discover where they were ; afterwards, how-
8073	ever, they received the information which they had
8074	given me."
8075	55. This was what I heard from the priests at
8076	Thebes ; at Dodona, however, the women who deliver
8077	the oracles relate the matter as follows : — " Two black
8078	doves flew away from Egyptian Thebes, and while one
8079	directed its flight to Libya, the other came to them.'
8080	She alighted on an oak, and sitting there began to
8081	speak with a human voice, and told them that on the
8082	spot where she was, there should thenceforth be an
8083	oracle of Jove. They understood the announcement to
8084	be from heaven, so they set to work at once and erected
8085	the shrine. The dove which flew to Libya bade the
8086	Libyans to establish there the oracle of Ammon." This
8087	likewise is an oracle of Jupiter. The persons from
8088	whom I received these particulars were three priestesses
8089	of the Dodonseans/ the eldest Promeneia, the next Ti-
8090	out and establishing an oracle in
8091	the newly-discovered West (Europe)
8092	through the Phceuicians, the mer-
8093	chants and expliirers of those days,
8094	who were in alliance with Egypt,
8095	supplied it with many of the pro-
8096	ductions it required from other coun-
8097	tries, and enabled it to export its
8098	manufactures in their ships. — [G. W.]
8099	* The two doves appear to connect
8100	this tradition with the Phoenician As-
8101	tarte, who appears to be the Baaltis or
8102	Dione of Byblus. If the rites of Do-
8103	dona were from Egypt, they were not
8104	necessarily introduced by any indi-
8105	vidual from that country. The idea
8106	of women giving^ out oracles is Greek,
8107	not Egyptian.— [G. W.]
8108	* Were it not for the tradition of
8109	the priestesses that Dodona was in-
8110	debted to Egypt for its oracle, we
8111	should at once discredit what appears
8112	so very impirohable ; but the Greeks
8113	would scarcely have attributed its
8114	origin to a foreigner, unless there had
8115	been some foundation for the story ;
8116	and Herodotus maintains that there
8117	was a resemblance between the oracles
8118	of Thebes and Dodona. It is not
8119	necessary that the stamp of a foreign
8120	character should have been strongly
8121	impressed at Dodona ; and the in-
8122	fluence of the oracle would have been
8123	equally great without the employment
8124	of a wn-itten language, or any refer-
8125	ence to particular religious doctrines
p. 121
8126	Chap. 55-57.
8127	THE MYTH EXPLAINED.
8128	99
8129	marete, and the youngest Nicandra — what they said was
8130	confirmed by the other Dodoneeans who dwell around
8131	the temple.''
8132	56. My own opinion of these matters is as follows : —
8133	I think that, if it be true that the Phoenicians carried
8134	off the holy women, and sold them for slaves,^ the one
8135	into Libya and the other into Greece, or Pelasgia (as
8136	it was then called), this last must have been sold to the
8137	Thesprotians. Afterwards, while undergoing servitude
8138	in those parts, she built under a real oak a temple to
8139	Jupiter, her thoughts in her new abode reverting — as it
8140	was likely they would do, if she had been an attendant
8141	in a temple of Jupiter at Thebes — to that particular
8142	god. Then, having acquired a knowledge of the Greek
8143	tongue, she set up an oracle. She also mentioned that
8144	her sister had been sold for a slave into Libya by the
8145	same persons as herself.
8146	57. The DodonEeans called the women doves because
8147	they were foreigners, and seemed to them to make a
8148	noise like birds. After a while the dove spoke with a
8149	human voice, because the woman, w^hose foreign talk
8150	had previously sounded to them like the chattering of a
8151	bird, acquired the power of speaking what they could
8152	•with •\vliicli those who consulted the
8153	oracles of Amun, Delphi, and other
8154	places did not occupy themselves. —
8155	[G. W.]
8156	7 The Temple of Dodona was de-
8157	stroyed B.C. 219 by Dorimachus when,
8158	being chosen general of the ^Etolians,
8159	he ravaged Epirus. (Polyb. iv. 67.)
8160	Xo remains of it now exist. It stood at
8161	the base of Mount Tom arus, or Tmarus
8162	(Strabo, vii. p. 476 ; Plin. ii. 103), on
8163	the borders of Thesj^rotia, and was said
8164	to have been founded by Deucalion.
8165	The name Timarete is here given by
8166	Herodotus to one of the priestesses.
8167	Strabo says the oracles were given out
8168	by a class of priests, called Selli (the
8169	Helli, according to Pindar), who were
8170	remarkable for their austere mode of
8171	life, and thought to honour the Deity
8172	by a bigoted affectation of discomfort,
8173	and by abjuring cleanliness; whence
8174	Homer says, II. xvi. 233 —
8175	Zeu afa, Attj5aji'ate, IleAacrytKe, T7jA60t I'aiwv
8176	Atoj5ajii79 fxeSiijov fivcT^et^epou' afjL(pl 6e SeAAol
8177	2ol vaiovcr \nTO(j>riTai. dun-TOTToSej, xaixanvvai,
8178	— in which impure piety they were veiy
8179	unlike the cleanly priests of Egypt.
8180	The sacred oaks of Dodona call to
8181	mind those of the Druids. The (f)T]yos
8182	is not the beech, but an oak, so called
8183	from its acorn, which was eaten. —
8184	[G. W.]
8185	^ Comp. Joel iii. 6, where the
8186	Tyrians are said to have sold Jewish
8187	children " to the Grecians." (Beni-
8188	lonim.)— [G. W.]
8189	H 2

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title: Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858) — archive.org text layer
dialect: none
source: text layer of corpus/incoming/histories/historians/herodotus-histories-ii/historyofherodot02herouoft.pdf (archive.org OCR; tools/build_repository.py histories())
licence: public domain in Canada (author died ≤ 1971, verified; LICENCES.md §7) — US position (recorded, does not gate the class; PD-CA 2026-09-26): PD-US (published ≤1930)
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attribution: Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858); public domain in Canada (death years verified: G. Rawlinson d.1902 (https://archive.org/metadata/historyofherodot02herouoft LC heading 1812-1902; https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1355998); co-authors H. C. Rawlinson d.1895 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309602), J. G. Wilkinson d.1875 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q923032) — staged at corpus/incoming/histories/historians/herodotus-histories-ii/historyofherodot02herouoft.pdf from https://archive.org/details/historyofherodot02herouoft (HIST-1, 2026-09-29)); OCR text by the Kemetic project, Yousef Hanna 2026.
file: History/Historians – Greek and Roman/Herodotus — Histories, book II (Egypt)/historyofherodot02herouoft.text-layer.L0.txt

Cite as:

Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858) — archive.org text layer. text layer of corpus/incoming/histories/historians/herodotus-histories-ii/historyofherodot02herouoft.pdf (archive.org OCR; tools/build_repository.py histories()). Layers as published by the Kemetic project (Yousef Hanna), 2026: Coptic · Cairene · Kemetic, /doc/history/historians-greek-and-roman/herodotus-histories-book-ii-egypt/historyofherodot02herouoft.text-layer/. Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858); public domain in Canada (death years verified: G. Rawlinson d.1902 (https://archive.org/metadata/historyofherodot02herouoft LC heading 1812-1902; https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1355998); co-authors H. C. Rawlinson d.1895 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309602), J. G. Wilkinson d.1875 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q923032) — staged at corpus/incoming/histories/historians/herodotus-histories-ii/historyofherodot02herouoft.pdf from https://archive.org/details/historyofherodot02herouoft (HIST-1, 2026-09-29)); OCR text by the Kemetic project, Yousef Hanna 2026.

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