Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858) — archive.org text layer

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Attribution: Rawlinson – History of Herodotus, a new English version, vol. 2 (London: Murray 1858); public domain in Canada (death years verified: G. Rawlinson d.1902 (https://archive.org/metadata/historyofherodot02herouoft LC heading 1812-1902; https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1355998); co-authors H. C. Rawlinson d.1895 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309602), J. G. Wilkinson d.1875 (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q923032) — staged at corpus/incoming/histories/historians/herodotus-histories-ii/historyofherodot02herouoft.pdf from https://archive.org/details/historyofherodot02herouoft (HIST-1, 2026-09-29)); OCR text by the Kemetic project, Yousef Hanna 2026.

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ref	L0 witness
p. 477
29842	Chap. 85-88. CONTRFV' AXCE OF CEBARES. 479
29843	not to fail." " If tlioii hast really aught of the kind,"
29844	said Darius, " hasten to get it ready. The matter does
29845	not hrook delay, for the trial is to be to-morrow." So
29846	(Ebares when he heard that, did as follows : — When
29847	night came, he took one of the mares, the chief favourite
29848	of the horse which Darius rode, and tethering it in the
29849	suburb, brought his master's horse to the place ; then,
29850	after leading him round and round the mare several
29851	times, nearer and nearer at each circuit, he ended by
29852	letting them come together.
29853	86. And now, when the morning broke, the six
29854	Persians, according to agreement, met together on
29855	horseback, and rode out to the suburb. As they went
29856	along they neared the spot where the mare was
29857	tethered the night before, whereupon the horse of
29858	Darius sprang forward and neighed. Just at the same
29859	time, though the sky was clear and lu'ight, there was
29860	a flash of lightning, followed by a thunder-clap. It
29861	seemed as if the heavens conspired with Darius, and
29862	hereby inaugurated him king : so the five other nobles
29863	leaped with one accord from their steeds, and bowed
29864	down before him and owned him for their king.^
29865	87. This is the account which some of the Persians
29866	gave of the contrivance of ffibares ; but there are
29867	others who relate the matter differently. They say
29868	that in the morning he stroked the mare with his hand,
29869	which he then hid in his trousers until the sun rose
29870	and the horses were about to start, when he suddenly
29871	drew his hand forth and put it to the nostrils of his
29872	master's horse, which immediately snorted and neighed.
29873	88. Thus was Darius, son of Hystaspes, appointed
29874	king ; and, except the Arabians, all they of Asia were
29875	It has been already observed that
29876	Darius probably succeeded to the
29877	throne by right of birth. Failing the
29878	line of Cyrus, which (it is plain) was
29879	menids (Book vii. ch. 11, note).
29880	Of course, if this view be correct,
29881	Hystaspes was the rightful heir ; but,
29882	as his years prevented him from
29883	now extinct, the line of Darius (so far undertaking the post of leader in the
29884	as we can tell) was next in succession, conspiracy, he would naturally cede
29885	See the genealogical tree of the Achae- ^ his rights to his sou.
p. 478
29886	480
29887	DABIUS BECOMES KING.
29888	Book III,
29889	subject to him ; for Cyrus, and after him Cambyses,®
29890	had brought them all under. The Arabians were
29891	never subject as slaves to the Persians, but had a
29892	league of friendship with them from the time when
29893	they brought Cambyses on his way as he went into
29894	Egypt ; for had they been unfriendly the Persians
29895	could never have made their invasion.
29896	Darius married, first of all,^ the following women,
29897	who were all of them Persians, namely, two daughters
29898	of Cyrus, Atossa and Artystone ; of these, Atossa had
29899	been twice married before, once to Cambyses, her
29900	brother, and once to the Magus ; the other, Artystone,
29901	was a virgin. He married also Parmys, daughter of
29902	Smerdis, son of Cyrus ; and he likewise took to wife
29903	the daughter of Otanes, who had made the discovery
29904	about the Magus. And now when his power was
29905	established firmly throughout all the kingdoms, the
29906	first thing that he did was to set up a carving in stone,
29907	which showed a man mounted upon a horse, with an
29908	inscription in these words following : — " Darius, son of
29909	Hystaspes, by aid of his good horse" (here followed
29910	the horse's name), " and of his good groom QEbares,
29911	got himself the kingdom of the Persians."^
29912	^ The Phoenicians and Cyprians
29913	would be here alluded to — perhaps
29914	also the Cilicians. There is no direct
29915	evidence at what time Cilicia became
29916	subject to Persia. It was a free state
29917	in the time of Crcesus (i. 28) ; it ap-
29918	pears nest as a satrapy under Darius
29919	(infra, ch. 90).
29920	' Darius had married a daughter of
29921	Gobryas before his accession (vii. 2).
29922	He also took to wife his niece, Phrata-
29923	giine, the daughter of his brother
29924	Artanes (vii. 224). Still the idea of
29925	De Hammer, that Mahomet's institu-
29926	tion of four wives was derived from
29927	an ancient custom of the Oriental
29928	nations (Hist. Osman. i. p. 565), may
29929	be correct. And this may be an
29930	instance of the practice. For the
29931	dauijhter of Gobryas may have been
29932	dead before the accession of Darius,
29933	and he may not have married Phrata-
29934	gune till after the death of one of the
29935	four wives mentioned in the text.
29936	^ Herodotus had probably not seen
29937	this figure, but received the account
29938	of it which he transmits, and the ex-
29939	planation of the inscription, from
29940	others. Perhaps his informants had
29941	no means of reading the writing, for
29942	the sculpture, like those at Behistun,
29943	may have been placed at an inacces-
29944	sible height. The story of ffibares,
29945	which must be regarded as a genuine
29946	Persian legend, probably arose out of
29947	the work of art. Dr. Donaldson in a
29948	very ingenious paper (Journ. of As,
29949	Soc. vol. xvi. part i. pp. 1-7) has
29950	endeavoured to restore the actual in-
29951	scription from the account of Hero-
29952	dotus. He regards the supposed groom
29953	as Ormuzd, and the name (Ebares as
p. 479
29954	Chap, 89.
29955	FORMATION OF THE SATRAPIES.
29956	481
29957	89. This he set up in Persia, and afterwards he
29958	proceeded to establish twenty governments of the kind
29959	which the Persians call satrapies,^ assigning to each its
29960	governor, and fixing the tribute which was to be paid
29961	him by the several nations. And generally he joined
29962	together in one satrapy the nations that were neigh-
29963	bours, but sometimes he passed over the nearer tribes,
29964	and put in their stead those which were more remote.*
29965	The following is an account of these governments, and
29966	of the yearly tribute which they paid to the king : —
29967	Such as brought their tribute in silver were ordered to
29968	pay according to the Babylonian talent ; while the
29969	Euboic was the standard measure for such as brought
29970	gold. Now the Babylonian talent contains seventy
29971	Euboic minee.^ During all the reign of Cyrus, and
29972	arising from the Persian word frdhara
29973	(= dedit), w-liich is common in the
29974	sculptures (Beliist. Ins., Col. i. Par. 9,
29975	§ 2, &c.). But it may be doubted
29976	•whether he has sufficient data for the
29977	conclusions which he draws.
29978	Curiously enough, another Persian
29979	legend, found in Nicholas of Da-
29980	mascus (Fragm. Hist. Gr. vol. iii. p.
29981	400, et seqq.), assigns a prominent
29982	part in the original elevation of the
29983	Acha;menida3, by the successes of
29984	Cyrus, to an Q^^bares. Here too we
29985	find the etymology of the name
29986	correctly given, as dya^ayyeXos, " the
29987	bearer of good tidings." Tliis latter is
29988	probably the (Ebares of Ctesias (§ 2-5).
29989	' The word " satrap" is found twice
29990	in the great inscription at Behistun
29991	(Col. iii. par. 3, § 4, and par. 9, § 2).
29992	It is spelt " Jchshatrapd," The de-
29993	rivation is undoubtedly khshatram,
29994	" crown" or " empire," andp«(Sans.
29995	Ml Pers. (jm\,_ or ^^L), " keeper,
29996	preserver." The satraps'are the great
29997	" upholders of the crown," and the
29998	provinces take their name of satrapy
29999	from them. (See Col. Rawlinson's
30000	Vocabulary of the Ancient Persian
30001	Language, p. 116.)
30002	* See A^apendix, Essay ii. " On the
30003	Persian System of Administration and
30004	Government," p. 547.
30005	* Standards of weight probably
30006	passed into Greece from Asia, whence
30007	the word mina (fiva, comp.Heb. >^?.^)
30008	seems certainly to have been derived.
30009	That the standard known to the
30010	Greeks as the Euboic was an Asiatic
30011	one, is plain from this passage. The
30012	old Attic, which bore so remarkable
30013	a jwoportion to it, must have had the
30014	same origin. We may trace the exist-
30015	ence of three standards in early times,
30016	proportioned to each other as 8, 7,
30017	and 6. The first is the original Attic,
30018	which is identical with the Eginetan ;
30019	the second is the Babylonian ; and tlie
30020	third the Euboic. If the ancient Attic
30021	is reckoned as 100, the Babylonian will
30022	be 87'5, and the Euboic 75. Hence
30023	it will be true to say, with Herodotus,
30024	that the Babylonian talent contains
30025	70 Euboic min£e instead of 60, or is
30026	to the Euboic as 7 to 6 (for 87-5 : 75
30027	exactly as 7:6); and with ^lian
30028	(V. H. i. 22), that the Babylonian
30029	talent contains 72 Attic minse, or is
30030	to the latei' Attic talent as 6 ; 5. For
30031	the later Attic talent stood to the
30032	older as 73 to 100 (Plut. Sol. c. 15),
30033	and 87"5 : 73 almost exactly as 6 : 5.
30034	Bockh has shown (Econ. of Athens
30035	i. p. 193) how tins awkward propor-
30036	tion of the later to the earlier Attic
30037	talent arose //'om an accident, Solon
p. 480
30038	482
30039	CHARACTER OF THE FIRST THREE KIXGS. Book HI.
30040	afterwards when Cambyses ruled, there were no fixed
30041	tributes, but the nations severally brought gifts to the
30042	king. On account of this and other like doings, the
30043	Persians say that Darius was a huckster, Cambyses
30044	a master, and Cyrus a father ; for Darius looked to
30045	making a gain in everything ; Cambyses w^as harsh
30046	and reckless ; while Cyrus was gentle, and procured
30047	them all manner of goods.
30048	90. The lonians, the Magnesians of Asia,® the
30049	Cohans, the Carians, the Lycians, the Milyans,^ and
30050	the Pamphylians, paid their tribute in a single sum,
30051	which was fixed at four hundred talents of silver.
30052	These formed together the first satrapy.
30053	The Mysians, Lydians, Lasonians,^ Cabalians, and
30054	Hygennians^ paid the sum of five hundred talents.
30055	This was the second satrapy.
30056	having intended to assimilate the Attic
30057	standard to the Eiiboic. Properly
30058	there were but two distinct standards
30059	in Greece — the original Attic (which
30060	continued as the commercial standard
30061	at Athens), and was also known as the
30062	Eginetan, and the Euboic, or Asiatic
30063	gold standard, from which the later
30064	Attic was an accidental deviation.
30065	The Babylonian weights discovered
30066	by Mr. Layard (Nineveh and Babylon,
30067	p. 601) agree fairly with this estimate.
30068	They furnish a mina of somewhat
30069	more than 16 oz. Troy, or nearly
30070	18 oz. avoirduiDois, which stands to the
30071	Attic raina of 151 oz., nearly in the
30072	proportion required. There is a slight
30073	deficiency on theBaby Ionian side, which
30074	may be accounted for by the greater
30075	waste of the more ancient metal.
30076	If the (later) Attic talent was worth
30077	243Z. 15s. of our money, the Euboic
30078	(silver) talent would be 250Z. 8s. od.,
30079	and the Babylonian 292Z. 3s. M.
30080	^ There were two towns of the
30081	name of Magnesia in Asia Minor,
30082	Magnesia under Sipylus and Mag-
30083	nesia on the ^la^ander. (See note * on
30084	Book i. ch. 161.) Both were situated
30085	inland, and had the character of Pe-
30086	lasgic cities. They were built proba-
30087	bly by that indigenous Pelasgic po-
30088	pulation to which the ISIaJonians also
30089	belonged. They would therefore be
30090	earlier than any of the Greek colonies
30091	upon the coast. Herodotus here dis-
30092	tinguishes them from the Magnesians
30093	of Europe (infra, vii. 132, &c.), a
30094	Thessalian people, who were possibly
30095	of the same race.
30096	' Vide supra, i. 173. The Milyans
30097	are reckoned as a separate people also
30098	by Ephorus. (Fragm. Hist. Gr, vol. i.
30099	p. 258.)
30100	^ In the seventh Book (ch. 77) He-
30101	rodotus identifies the Cabalians and
30102	the Lasonians. According to that
30103	passage, both Cabalians and Laso-
30104	nians would appear to have been Ma;-
30105	onians, remnants of the ancient people
30106	expelled by the conquering Lydians.
30107	Probably they occupied the high tract
30108	between Lydia and Lycia, which is
30109	ascribed commonly to Phrygia. The
30110	Cabalians appear to have extended
30111	into Lycia, occuppng there the high
30112	plain between Milyas and the valley
30113	of the Xanthus. (See Appendix to
30114	Book i. Essay ii. § 8, v.)
30115	~ * The Hvgennians are not men-
30116	tioned by any other author, whence
30117	Valckenaer proposed, instead of Aa-
30118	(Toviav, Koi Ka^aXicov, kol 'Yyeweoiv, to
30119	read Aacroi'iuiv tou' Kai Ka^aXiuv KoXtv-
p. 481
30120	Chap. 90, 91. EXTENT AND LIMITS OF THE SATRAPIES. 483
30121	The Hellespontians, of the right coast as one enters
30122	the straits, the Phrygians, the Asiatic Thracians, the
30123	Paphlagonians, the Mariandynians, and the Syrians^"
30124	paid a tribute of three hundred and sixty talents. This
30125	was the third satrapy.
30126	The CiHcians gave three hundred and sixty white
30127	horses, one for each day in the year,^ and five hundred
30128	talents of silver. Of this sum one hundred and forty
30129	talents went to pay the cavalry which guarded the
30130	country, while the remaining three hundred and sixty
30131	were received by Darius. This was the fourth satrapy.
30132	91. The country reaching from the city of Posideium^
30133	(built by Amphilochus, son of Amphiaraiis, on the con-
30134	fines of Syria and Cilicia) to the borders of Egypt, exclud-
30135	ing therefrom a district which belonged to Arabia, and
30136	was free from tax,^ paid a tribute of three hundred and
30137	fifty talents. All Phoenicia, Palsestine Syria, and Cy-
30138	prus, were herein contained. This was the fifth satrapy.
30139	From Egypt, and the neighbouring parts of Libya,
30140	together with the towns of Cyrene and Barca, which
30141	belonged to the Egyptian satrapy, the tribute which
30142	came in was seven hundred talents. These seven
30143	hundred talents did not include the profits of the
30144	fisheries of Lake Moeris,* nor the corn furnished to the
30145	troops at Memphis. Corn was supplied to 120,000
30146	Persians, who dwelt at Memphis in the quarter called
30147	the White Castle,^ and to a number of auxiliaries.
30148	This was the sixth satrapy.
30149	fjieva)v. It is possible that the reading
30150	ought to be 'Yrewecoi'(T having become
30151	r), and that the people of Etenna, a
30152	town in Pisidia (Polj^b. v. 73), are in-
30153	tended. (See the Museum Philolog.
30154	vol. i. p. 634.)
30155	'" That is, the Cappadocians. (Vide
30156	supra, i. 72.)
30157	' Compare i. 32, and ii. 4.
30158	* Poside'ium lay about 12 miles
30159	south of the embouchure of the Oron-
30160	tes. It is mentioned by Strabo (xvi,
30161	town of Bosyt preserves the name.
30162	Syria was usually considered to begin
30163	at the southern extremity of the gulf
30164	of Issus, nearly half a degree north of
30165	Poside'ium.
30166	^ The district here spoken of is
30167	that between Gaza (Cadytis) and Je-
30168	nysus (vide supra, ch. 5), which Cam-
30169	byses traversed on his road to Egypt.
30170	Concerning the exemption of the
30171	Arabs from tribute, vide infra, ch. 97.
30172	* See n. B. ii. ch. 149.
30173	p. 1103, and p. 1127). The modern I * Vide supra, ch. 13, note.
p. 482
30174	484
30175	EXTENT AND LIMITS OF THE SATEAPIES. Book III.
30176	The Sattagjdians,^ the Gandarians, the Dadicee, and
30177	the Aparjtse, who were all reckoned together, paid a
30178	trihute of a hundred and seventy talents. This was
30179	the seventh satrapy.
30180	Susa, and the other parts of Cissia, paid three hundred
30181	talents. This was the eighth satrapy.
30182	92. From Babylonia, and the rest of Assyria, were
30183	drawn a thousand talents of silver, and five hundred
30184	boy-eunuchs. This was the ninth satrapy.
30185	Agbatana, and the other parts of Media, together with
30186	the Paricanians,'^ and Orthocorybantes/ paid in all four
30187	hundred and fifty talents. This was the tenth satrapy.
30188	The Caspians, Pausicae,® Pantimathi, and Darita?,
30189	v/ere joined in one government, and paid the sum of
30190	two hundred talents. This w^as the eleventh satrapy.
30191	From the Bactrian tribes as far as the ^gli,^ the
30192	tribute received was three hundred and sixty talents.
30193	This was the twelfth satrapy.
30194	93. From Pactyica,^ Armenia, and the countries
30195	reaching thence to the Euxine, the sum drawn was
30196	four hundred talents. This was the thirteenth satrapy.
30197	The Sagartians, Sarangians, Thamana^ans,^ Utians,*
30198	^ This is the only mention of the
30199	Pattagydians in any classical %vTiter.
30200	They appear, however, in the inscrip-
30201	tions of Darius as Thatagush (Beh.
30202	Ins. Col. i. par. 6, § 4 ; Persep. Ins.
30203	No. 4, line 17 ; Kakhsh-i-Eustam Ins.
30204	line 24), and evidently lie towards the
30205	extreme east. The Gandarians and
30206	Dadicaj are mentioned again (vii. 66).
30207	The Aparyta; are unknown.
30208	' The Para?taceni are perhaps meant
30209	here. Tliey were often regarded as
30210	distinct from the Medes. (See App. to
30211	Book i. Essay x. § 10, iv.) Or the
30212	Paricanians may, as Mr. C. MuUer
30213	thinks, be the Hyrcanians. (See the
30214	Map of the Satrapies in Vol. III..)
30215	8 No writer but Herodotus mentions
30216	the Orthocorybantes.
30217	' T\\e Pausica? are perhajis the
30218	Pfesiani of Strabo (xi. p. 744) and the
30219	Pa>sicJB of Pliny (H. N. ^•i. 19). The
30220	Pantimathi and Daritas are un-
30221	known.
30222	1 The -lEgli are probably the Avya-
30223	Xot of Ptolemy (vi. 12), whom he
30224	places on the Jaxartes, and perhaps
30225	the A"yT]\oi mentioned by Stephen as
30226	" a Median nation." I am indebted
30227	to Mr. C. Miiller for the further con-
30228	jecture that they are the Alya'ioi
30229	(which he would read AlyXol) of the
30230	Paschal Chronicle (p. 321). This
30231	passage is thought to fix their posi-
30232	tion to the site of Alexandria eschata.
30233	2 This Pacty'ica must be distin-
30234	gTiished from the region of the same
30235	name on the Upper Indus (infra, ch.
30236	102, and iv. 44). It iiudoubtedly ad-
30237	joined Armenia.
30238	' Agathias has a Kco^t; Oafiavav in
30239	the Kurdish mountains (iv.29). Other-
30240	wise no writer but Herodotus mentions
30241	the Thamanfeans. Their name seems
p. 483
30242	Chap. 92-94. EXTENT AND LIMITS OF THE SATAPRIS.
30243	485
30244	and Mycians,^ together with the inhabitants of the
30245	islands in the Erythraean sea, where the king sends
30246	those whom he banishes, furnished altogether a tribute
30247	of six hundred talents. This was the fourteenth satrapy.
30248	The Sacans and Caspians gave two hundred and
30249	fifty talents. This was the fifteenth satrapy.
30250	The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, and Arians,
30251	gave three hundred. This was the sixteenth satrapy.
30252	94. The Paricanians and Ethiopians of Asia fur-
30253	nished a tribute of four hundred talents. This was the
30254	seventeenth satrapy.
30255	The Matienians, Saspeires, and Alarodians were
30256	rated to pay two himdred talents. This was the eigh-
30257	teenth satrapy.
30258	The Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mosynoeci, and
30259	Mares had to pay three hundred talents. This was the
30260	nineteenth satrapy.
30261	The Indians, who are more numerous than any other
30262	nation with which we are acquainted, paid a tribute
30263	exceeding that of every other people, to wit, three hun-
30264	dred and sixty talents of gold-dust. This was the
30265	twentieth satrapy.®
30266	to linger in that of the modern Ty-
30267	munees, whom the maps place in the
30268	vicinity of Herat. Herodotus again
30269	refers to them (infra, ch. 117).
30270	* The Utians are perhaps the
30271	Uxians of Strabo (xi. p. 1032) and
30272	Arrian (Exp. Alex. iii. 17), who
30273	dwelt in the Bakhtiyari mountains.
30274	^ No other writer, if we except
30275	Stephen, mentions the Mycians or
30276	Mecians. They appear, however, in
30277	the Inscriptions as MaJca, and their
30278	name is, perhaps, to be recognised in
30279	the modem Mekran.
30280	® It is interesting to compare with
30281	this enumeration the three authentic
30282	lists of the Persian provinces which
30283	are contained in the Inscriptions of
30284	Darius. They are as follows : —
30285	At Behistun. At Persepolis. At Nakhsh-i-Rustam.
30286	Persia Susiana. Media
30287	Susiana Media Susiana
30288	At Behistun. At Persepolis. At ya!cksh-i-Rustam.
30289	Babj-lonia
30290	Babylonia
30291	Parthia
30292	Assyria
30293	Arabia
30294	Aria
30295	Arabia
30296	Assyria
30297	Bactria
30298	Egypt
30299	Egypt
30300	Sogdiana
30301	Saparda
30302	Armenia
30303	C'borasmia
30304	Ionia
30305	Cappadocia
30306	Zarangia
30307	Media
30308	Saparda
30309	Arachosia
30310	Annenia
30311	Ionia
30312	Sattagydia
30313	Cappaducia
30314	*Sagartia
30315	Gandaria
30316	Parlhia
30317	Parthia
30318	India
30319	Zarangia
30320	Zarangia
30321	Sacia (2)
30322	Aria
30323	Aria
30324	Babylonia
30325	Cbora>mia
30326	Bactria
30327	Assyria
30328	Bactria
30329	Sogdiana
30330	Arabia
30331	Sogdiana
30332	Chorasmia
30333	Egypt
30334	Gandaria
30335	Sattagydia
30336	Armenia
30337	Sacia
30338	Arachosia
30339	Cappadocia
30340	Sattagydia
30341	*India
30342	Saparda
30343	Arachosia
30344	Gandaria
30345	Ionia
30346	Mecia
30347	Sacia
30348	•Sacia
30349	Mecia
30350	•The Islands
30351	(Cyclades?)
30352	*The Scodra; (?)
30353	*Ionia
30354	N.B. The provinces marked
30355	*rhe Tacabri (?)
30356	with an asterisli are not *The Budians
30357	included
30358	in the earlier
30359	*The Ethiopians
30360	lists..
30361	*The Mardians (?)
30362	*rhe Carchians
p. 484
30363	486
30364	AMOUNT OF THE TRIBUTE.
30365	Book III.
30366	95. If the Babylonian money here spoken of be
30367	reduced to the Euboic scale, it will make nine thousand
30368	five hundred and forty such talents ; and if the gold be
30369	reckoned at thirteen times the worth of silver,^ the
30370	Indian gold-dust will come to four thousand six hun-
30371	dred and eighty talents. Add these two amounts to-
30372	gether, and the whole revenue which came in to Darius
30373	year by year will be found to be in Euboic money
30374	fourteen thousand five hundred and sixty talents, not to
30375	mention parts of a talent.^
30376	96. Such was the revenue which Darius derived
30377	from Asia and a small part of Libya. Later in his
30378	reign the sum was increased by the tribute of the
30379	islands, and of the nations of Europe as far as Thessaly.
30380	The great king stores away the tribute which he
30381	receives^ after this fashion — he melts it down, and
30382	7 In Greece the relative value of
30383	gold varied at different times. Hero-
30384	dotus says gold was to silver as 13 to
30385	1, afterwards in Plato and Xenophon's
30386	time (and more than 100 years after
30387	the death of Alexander) it was 10 to
30388	1, owing to the quantity of gold
30389	brought in through the Persian war.
30390	It long continued at 10 to 1 (Liv,
30391	xxxviii. 11) except when an accident
30392	altered the projwrtion of those metals.
30393	In the time of Theodosius II. it
30394	was as 18 to 1 ; and in the middle
30395	ages and 16th century 11 and 12 to 1.
30396	Before the discovery of America 11 and
30397	10 to 1 in England ; and after great
30398	fluctuations, it was in Newton's time
30399	16 to 1, becoming at length 14$ to 1 in
30400	our oAvn days, before the discoveries
30401	in California and Australia. — ^G. W.]
30402	^ It is impossible to reconcile He-
30403	rodotus's numbers, and equally im-
30404	possible to say where the mistake
30405	lies. According to the items of his
30406	account the sum total of the silver I
30407	amounts to 7740 Babylonian talents.
30408	This would equal 9030 Euboic ta- '
30409	lents ; instead of which he gives, in
30410	his present test, 9540 ; being an ex- :
30411	cess over the items of 510 E" talents, j
30412	Again, having stated the silver to
30413	amount to 9540 E. talents, and the
30414	gold-dust to be equal to 4680 E. ta-
30415	lents (a correct estimate on his pre-
30416	mises), he gives the whole amount as
30417	14,560 instead of 14,220 E. talents;
30418	so that again he is in excess, this time,
30419	by 340 talents. Thus we seem to
30420	have a double error, which it is quite
30421	impossible to remedy.
30422	Taking the lowest estimate which
30423	his numbers allow (13,710 E, talents),
30424	the annual revenue of Persia was about
30425	three millions and a half of our money.
30426	The higher estimate would raise it to
30427	about 3,646,000?. The present revenue
30428	of the Persian empire is estimated
30429	at something more than 3,000,0007.
30430	(Kinneir's Persia, p. 47). But it must
30431	be remembered in any comparison be-
30432	tween the resources of Ancient Persia
30433	and of modem countries, that the
30434	ancient money revenue corresponds
30435	to the modern Civil List, since it
30436	simply served to defray the expenses
30437	of the Court.
30438	* Arrian relates that Alexander
30439	found 50,000 talents of silver laid up
30440	in store at Susa, when he took that
30441	city. (Exited. Alex. ni. xvi.) There
30442	were further stores in Persepolis and
30443	Pasargada; (ibid. x\iii.). On the Per-
30444	sian coinage, see notes on Book iv.
30445	ch. 166, and Book vii. ch. 28.
p. 485
30446	Chap. 95-97.
30447	TREASURE STORED IN INGOTS.
30448	487
30449	while it is in a liquid state runs it into earthen vessels,
30450	which are afterwards removed, leaving the metal in a
30451	solid mass. When money is wanted, he coins as much
30452	of this bullion as the occasion requires.
30453	97. Such then were the governments, and such the
30454	amounts of tribute at which they were assessed respect-
30455	ively. Persia alone has not been reckoned among the
30456	tributaries — and for this reason, because the country
30457	of the Persians is altogether exempt from tax. The
30458	following peoples paid no settled tribute, but brought
30459	gifts to the king : first, the Ethiopians bordering upon
30460	Egypt,^" who were reduced by Cambyses when he made
30461	war on the long-lived Ethiopians, and who dwell about
30462	the sacred city of Nysa,^ and have festivals in honour
30463	of Bacchus. The grain on which they and their next
30464	neighbours feed is the same as that used by the
30465	Calantian Indians.^ Their dwelling houses are under-
30466	ground.^ Every third year these two nations brought
30467	— and they still bring to my day — two choenices of
30468	virgin gold, two hundred logs of ebony,* five Ethiopian
30469	'" These were the inhabitants of
30470	Lower Ethiopia and Nubia. Ebony
30471	(habni. Eg. ; ebnoos, Arab.) and ivory
30472	(" ah,'' " ebo," Eg.) had always been
30473	brought as a tribute to the Egyptian
30474	monarchs of the 18th and other dy-
30475	nasties, as well as rings and ingots of
30476	gold and silver, with various produc-
30477	tions of the country and of the inte-
30478	rior of Africa, apes, giraffes, skins of
30479	leopards, and even cattle and hounds.
30480	— [G. W.]
30481	' Vide supra, ii. 146, note *.
30482	2 Vide supra, ch. 38. note ■*. As
30483	nothing has been said about the grain
30484	eaten by the Calantians, various
30485	emendations have been proposed.
30486	Valckenaer would read a-fjfiuTi for
30487	(TTvepjjiaTi, Wesseling epy/xari. Hence
30488	Larcher's " coutumes a I'egard des
30489	morts" and Lange's " Todtenhrciuche.'"
30490	But there seems to be no sufiScient
30491	reason for departing from the reading
30492	of the MSS. The grain intended is
30493	probably rice.
30494	" This notion probably arose from
30495	their having mud huts, so common in
30496	central Africa, and was the origin of
30497	the story and name of the Troglodytee,
30498	who lived between Nubia and the Red
30499	Sea.— [G. W.]
30500	* They not only brought logs of
30501	ebony, with other ornamental woods
30502	and elephants' teeth, as tribute to the
30503	Pharaohs, bat used ebony clubs in
30504	battle (No. II.) which exactly resemble
30505	No. I.
p. 486
30506	488
30507	GIFTS OF THE ETHIOPIANS A^^D OTHEES. Book III.
30508	boys, and twenty elephant tusks. The Colchians, and
30509	the neighbouring tribes who dwell between them and
30510	the Caucasus — for so far the Persian rule reaches, while
30511	north of the Caucasus no one fears them any longer —
30512	undertook to furnish a gift, which in my day was still
30513	brought every fifth year, consisting of a hundred boys,
30514	and the same number of maidens.^ The Arabs brought
30515	every year a thousand talents of frankincense. Such
30516	were the gifts which the king received over and above
30517	the tribute-money.
30518	98. The way in which the Indians get the plentiful
30519	supply of gold, which enables them to furnish year by
30520	year so vast an amount of gold-dust to the king is the
30521	following : — Eastward of India lies a tract which is
30522	entirely sand. Indeed of all the inhabitants of Asia,
30523	concerning whom anything certain is known, the
30524	Indians dwell the nearest to the east, and the rising of
30525	the sun. Beyond them the whole country is desert on
30526	(mentioned in n, B. vii. ch. 69, wood-
30527	cut No. II.) is one of a lighter kind
30528	used by the modern Ethiopians in
30529	dromedary-riding. This is also seen
30530	in the hands of royal attendants in
30531	the old sculptures. Some Ethiopian
30532	dandies have this light lissdn covered
30533	with alternate bands of red, blue, and
30534	gi-een cloth, and a net-work of brass
30535	wire.-HiG.W.l
30536	' It is curious to find the practice
30537	of exporting their children so ancient
30538	in these regions. Circassia still sup-
30539	plies wives to almost all the wealthy
30540	Turks, and the Mamelukes are said
30541	to have been composed entirely of
30542	those who had been brought when
30543	young from the same country. (See
30544	Rennell's Geography of Herodotus, p.
30545	525, note.)
30546	No. II.
30547	those they have at the present day,
30548	1 ft. 6 in. long (No. III. 1 & 2).
30549	Besides the modem club called lissdn
30550	No. III.
p. 487
30551	Chap. 98, 99.
30552	CUSTOMS OF THE INDIANS.
30553	489
30554	account of the sand.^ The tribes of Indians are nume-
30555	rous, and do not all speak the same language '' — some
30556	are wandering tribes, others not. They who dwell in
30557	the marshes along the river,^ live on raw fish, which
30558	they take in boats made of reeds, each formed out of a
30559	single joint.^ These Indians wear a dress of sedge,
30560	which they cut in the river and bruise ; afterwards
30561	they weave it into mats, and wear it as we wear a
30562	breast-plate.
30563	99. Eastward of these Indians are another tribe,
30564	called Pad^ans,^" who are wanderers, and live on raw
30565	* The India of Herodotus is the
30566	ti'ue ancient India (the Hapta Hendic
30567	of the Vendidad), the region ahout
30568	the Upper Indus, best known to us at
30569	present under the name of the Punj-
30570	aub. Herodotus knows nothing of
30571	the great southern peninsula. Pro-
30572	bably, therefore, the desert of which
30573	he speaks as extending indefinitely
30574	eastward, is the vast elevated sandy
30575	tract lying north of the Himalaya,
30576	between that range and the Tchien
30577	Chan chain, which stretches in a
30578	direction a little north of east, from
30579	Cashmere to the longitude of Pekin,
30580	a distance of above 2000 miles. This
30581	tract includes the great desert of Cobi
30582	or Shamoo. (See Humboldt's Aspects
30583	of Nature, vol. i. pp. 74-5, E. T.)
30584	^ The Hindoo races are supposed to
30585	have been settled in India as early as
30586	1200 B.C. ; which is the date assigned
30587	to the Vedas, though these appear not
30588	to be all of one period. Some limit their
30589	date to 880 b.c. Having advanced
30590	from Central Asia through Cabul, the
30591	Hindoos established themselves on the
30592	Indus (Sindlm, " the river ") and
30593	throughout the Penj-ab (" five waters"
30594	or " streams "), whence they gradually
30595	extended their conquests southward ;
30596	and they had already conquered most
30597	of the aboriginal tribes before the
30598	time of Herodotus.
30599	The language of the Hindoos differs
30600	entirely from those of the aborigines ;
30601	and the relationship of the Sanscrit to
30602	the Zend of ancient Persia, and to the
30603	Greek, Teutonic, and other European
30604	languages, accords well with their
30605	common origin from Central Asia.
30606	The Vedas are ■«Titteu in a dialect of
30607	an older type than the Sanscrit, and
30608	still nearer to the Zend of the Avesta.
30609	The aborigines are still found in
30610	Ceylon and in Southern India as well
30611	as in the hill-country in other parts ;
30612	and their customs differ as much as
30613	their languages from those of the
30614	Hindoos. They are supposed to be of
30615	Scythian origin ; and if, as some
30616	think, there is an analogy between
30617	their languages (as the Tamul and
30618	others) and the Semitic dialects, this
30619	may be explained by their relationship
30620	to the parent tongue before its sepa-
30621	ration into Arian and Semitic, as in
30622	the case of the Egyptian (see n. ch. 2,
30623	Bk, ii, in Ap. ch. i.) They have no
30624	castes ; but this institution is even
30625	thought to have been unknown to the
30626	Hindoos when they first settled in
30627	India ; and is the result of conquest.
30628	They are first mentioned by Mega-
30629	sthenes B.C. 302.— [G. W.]
30630	" By " the river " is meant the
30631	Indus. It does not appear that He-
30632	rodotus was aware of the existence of
30633	the Ganges, which only became known
30634	to the Greeks by the expedition of
30635	Alexander. (Cf. Strabo, book xv.)
30636	* So Pliny : " Arundini quidem In-
30637	dicfe arborea altitudo ; navigiorum-
30638	que etiam vicem prajstant, si credimus,
30639	singula internodia." (Hist. Nat. xvi.
30640	36.) Cuvier says that one species of
30641	the bamboo, the Bamhus arundinacea,
30642	grows to the height of 60 feet.
30643	'" The only certain mention of the
30644	Pada?ans by any other ancient writer
p. 488
30645	490
30646	THE CANNIBALS.
30647	Book III.
30648	flesh. This tribe is said to have the following customs:
30649	— If one of their number be ill, man or woman, they
30650	take the sick person, and if he be a man, the men
30651	of his acquaintance proceed to put him to death,
30652	because, they say, his flesh would be spoilt for them if
30653	he pined and wasted away with sickness. The man
30654	protests he is not ill in the least ; but his friends will
30655	not accept his denial — in spite of all he can say, they
30656	kill him, and feast themselves on his body. So also if
30657	a woman be sick, the women, who are her friends, take
30658	her and do with her exactly the same as the men. If
30659	one of them reaches to old age, about which there is
30660	seldom any question, as commonly before that time they
30661	have had some disease or other, and so have been put
30662	to death — but if a man, notwithstanding, comes to be
30663	old, then they offer him in sacrifice to their gods, and
30664	afterwards eat his flesh. ^
30665	100. There is another set of Indians whose customs
30666	are very different. They refuse to put any live animal
30667	to death,^ tliey sow no corn, and have no dwelling-
30668	is that in the well-known lines of
30669	Tibullus :
30670	" Impia nee SKvis celebrans convivia mensis
30671	Ultima vicinus Phoebo tenet arva Fadajus."
30672	—IV. i. 144
30673	A fragment of Nicolaus Damascenus
30674	is conjecturally applied to them. (See
30675	Valckenaer ad Herod, iii. 99, and
30676	comp. Miiller's Fr. Hist. Gr. iii. p.
30677	464.) According; to this, among the
30678	Padffians not the sacrificer but the
30679	wisest of those present began the cere-
30680	monies, and the only thing for which
30681	men prayed was jiTstice.
30682	' Vide supra, ch. 38. The same cus-
30683	tom is said to have prevailed among
30684	the Massageta3 (i. 216) and the Isse-
30685	donians (iv. 26) ; and a similar one is
30686	mentioned by Strabo as existing among
30687	the Caspians (xi. p. 753), and the
30688	Derbices (ibid. p. 756). Marco Polo
30689	found the practice in Sumatra in his
30690	own day. " The people of Dragoian,"
30691	he says, " observe this horrible custom
30692	in cases where any member of their
30693	family is afflicted with a disease.
30694	The relations of the sick person send
30695	for the magicians, whom they require,
30696	on examination of the sj'mptoms, to
30697	declare whether he will recover or not.
30698	... If the decision be that he cannot,
30699	the relations then call in certain men
30700	Avhose peculiar duty it is, and who
30701	perform their business with dexterity,
30702	to close the mouth of the patient until
30703	he is suffocated. This being done,
30704	they cut the body in pieces in order
30705	to prepare it as victuals, and when it
30706	has been so dressed the relations
30707	assemble, and in a convivial manner
30708	eat the whole of it, not leaving so
30709	much as the marrow in the bones."
30710	(Travels, p. 610, E.T.) According
30711	to some modern writers (Elphinstone's
30712	Cabul, vol. i. p. 45, 2nd ed.), canni-
30713	balism continues in the countries bor-
30714	dering on the Indus to the present
30715	day.
30716	'■^ The repugnance of true Brahmins
30717	to take away life is well known.
p. 489
30718	Chap. 100-102.
30719	THE VEGETARIANS.
30720	491
30721	lioiises. Vegetables are their only food. There is a
30722	plant which grows wild in their country, bearing seed
30723	about the size of millet-seed in a calyx : their wont is
30724	to gather this seed and having boiled it, calyx and all,
30725	to use it for food. If one of them is attacked with
30726	sickness, he goes forth into the wilderness, and lies
30727	down to die ; no one has the least concern either for the
30728	sick or for the dead.
30729	101. All the tribes which I have mentioned live
30730	together like the brute beasts : ^ they have also all the
30731	same tint of skin, which approaches that of the Ethi-
30732	opians.* Their country is a long way from Persia
30733	towards the south : nor had king Darius ever any
30734	authority over them.
30735	102. Besides these, there are Indians of another tribe,
30736	who border on the city Caspatyrus,^ and the country
30737	of Pactyica ; ^ these people dwell northward of all the
30738	rest of the Indians, and follow nearly the same mode
30739	of life as the Bactrians. They are more warlike than
30740	any of the other tribes, and from them the men are
30741	sent forth who go to procure the gold. For it is in
30742	this part of India that the sandy desert lies. Here, in
30743	this desert, there live amid the sand great ants, in size
30744	somewhat less than dogs, but bigger than foxes. The
30745	The Mahrattas are said to have the
30746	same prejudice. Heeren (As. Nat.
30747	vol. i. p. 303) thinks that the latter
30748	are intended in this i^lace. But his
30749	arguments are not very convincing.
30750	^ " Concubitus eorum, more pe-
30751	corum, in aperto est." In Book i.
30752	ch. 216, nearly the same is related
30753	of the Massagetae. Herodotus adds,
30754	" Semen eorundem genitale, non, sicut
30755	aliorum hominum, album, sednigiaim,
30756	pro colore corporis : cujusmodi semen
30757	et ^thiopes edere solent." Aristotle
30758	denies these statements of Herodotus.
30759	(Hist. An. iii. 22 ; Geuer. An. ii. 2.)
30760	* If the Ethiopians and Indians had
30761	the same colour, which is not black
30762	as that of the Negro, it is evident that
30763	VOL. II.
30764	the Egyptians could not be " black,"
30765	as Herodotus states in B. ii. ch. 104.
30766	(See n. ■* on that chapter. — [G. W.]
30767	* Heeren (As. Nat., vol. i. p. 293)
30768	regards the city of Caspatyrus (the
30769	Caspapyrus of Hecatajus, Fr. 179) as
30770	the modern Cabul ; but his data are
30771	very insufficient. De Hammer (Ann.
30772	Vien. vol. Ii. p. 36) and Schlegel
30773	(Berlin. Taschenb. 1829, p. 17) sug-
30774	gest Cashmere. But neither of these
30775	towns is really on the main stream of
30776	the Indus, on which Caspatyrus seems
30777	to be placed. Infra, iv. 44.
30778	* Herodotus appears to recognise
30779	tivo districts of this name, one on the
30780	confines of Aniienia (supra, ch. 93),
30781	the other upon the Indus. 2l
p. 490
30782	492
30783	THE SANDY DESERT.
30784	Book III.
30785	Persian king has a number of them, which have been
30786	caught by the hunters in the land whereof we are
30787	speaking. These ants make their dwellings under-
30788	ground, and like the Greek ants, which they very much
30789	resemble in shape, throw up sand-heaps as they burrow.
30790	Now the sand which they throw up is full of gold.^
30791	The Indians, when they go into the desert to collect
30792	this sand, take three camels and harness them too:ether,
30793	a female in the middle and a male on either side, in a
30794	leading-rein. The rider sits on the female, and they
30795	are particular to choose for the purpose one that has
30796	but just dropped her young ; for their female camels
30797	can run as fast as horses, while they bear burthens
30798	very much better.
30799	103. As the Greeks are well acquainted with the
30800	shape of the camel, I shall not trouble to describe it ;
30801	but I shall mention what seems to have escaped their
30802	'' It is curious to find the same nar-
30803	rative, told gravely, not only by Me-
30804	gasthenes (Fr. 39), Die. (Or. xsxv.
30805	p. 436), Pliny (Hist. Nat. xi. 36),
30806	Mela (ill. vii. 2), and ^Elian (H. An.
30807	iii. 4), but also by Prester John (Ung-
30808	khan) in the 12th century. His words,
30809	as reported by Bahr (note ad loc), are
30810	these : —
30811	" In quadam provincia nostra sunt
30812	formicse in magnitudine catulorum,
30813	habentes septem pedes, et alas qua-
30814	tuor— istaj formicaj ab occasu solis ad
30815	ortum morantur sub terra et fodiunt
30816	purissimum aurum tota nocte — quas-
30817	runt victum suum tota die — in nocte
30818	autem veniunt homines de cunctis
30819	civitatibus ad colligendum ipsum
30820	aurum et imponunt elephantibus —
30821	quando formicje sunt supr^ terram,
30822	nuUus ibi audet accedere, propter
30823	crudelitatem et ferocitatem ipsarum."
30824	According to Tzschuck (ad Pomp.
30825	Mel. in. vii. § 2) some of the Ara-
30826	bian writers have the same tale,
30827	Nearchus declared that he had seen
30828	the skins of these ants. (Arrian.
30829	Indie. 15.) And so late as the year
30830	1559 one was (it is said) sent as a
30831	present from the Shah of Persia to
30832	Solyman II. This is described by
30833	De Thou in the " History of his
30834	Time" as " formica Indica, canis me-
30835	diocris magnitudine, animal mordax
30836	et sffivum." (xxiv. p. 809.)
30837	Modern research has not discovered
30838	anything very^ satisfactory either \^^th
30839	r«spect to the animal intended, or the
30840	habits ascribed to it. Perhaps the
30841	most plausible conjecture is that which
30842	identifies it with the Pengolin, or
30843	Ant-eater (Manis Fentedactyla of Lin-
30844	Uc'eus), wliich burrows on the sandy
30845	plains of northern India. (See Blakes-
30846	ley ad loc.)
30847	Professor Wilson suggests that the
30848	entire story arose from the fact that
30849	the gold collected in the plains of
30850	Little Thibet is commonly called
30851	Fippilika, or " ant-gold " — the name
30852	being given to it from a belief that
30853	colonies of ants, by clearing away the
30854	sand or soil, leave the ore exposed.
30855	(Journal of As. Soc. vol. xiii, pp. 137
30856	and 143.)
p. 491
30857	Chap. 103, 104.
30858	QUEST OF GOLD.
30859	493
30860	iiotice. The camel has in its hind legs four thigh-bones
30861	and four knee-joints.^
30862	104. When the Indians therefore have thus equipped
30863	themselves they set off in quest of the gold, calculating
30864	the time so that they may be engaged in seizing it
30865	during the most sultry part of the day, when the ants
30866	hide themselves to escape the heat. The sun in those
30867	parts shines fiercest in the morning, not, as elsewhere,
30868	at noonday ; the greatest heat is from the time when
30869	he has reached a certain height, until the hour at which
30870	the market closes. During this space he burns much
30871	more furiously than at midday in Greece, so that the
30872	men there are said at that time to drench themselves
30873	with water. At noon his heat is much the same in
30874	India as in other countries, after which, as the day
30875	declines, the warmth is only equal to that of the morn-
30876	ing sun elsewhere. Towards evening the coolness
30877	increases, till about sunset it becomes very cold.^
30878	" This is of course untrue, and it is
30879	difficult to understand how Herodotus
30880	could entertain such a notion. There
30881	is no real difference, as regards the
30882	anatomy of the leg, between the horse
30883	and the camel. In each the leg is
30884	composed of four bones which are
30885	united by three joints, but of these
30886	two only — the real knee, which is
30887	more apparent in the camel than in
30888	other quadrupeds owing to the length
30889	of the thigh-bone, and the hough-
30890	have at all the look of knee-joints.
30891	Even if the fetlock joint be counted,
30892	there can he but three knees ; for it is
30893	impossible to extend that character to
30894	the hip-joint, which is wholly con-
30895	cealed.
30896	^ Bredovv (Geograph. et Uranolog.
30897	Herod, viii.) and Niebuhr (Geography
30898	of Herodotus, p. 10, E. T.) explain
30899	this from Herodotus's notion of the
30900	earth as a flat plain, on the whole of
30901	which the sun rose (and again set) at
30902	the same moment. The east there-
30903	fore, which was close to the sun in
30904	the morning, was hottest at that time ;
30905	the west was then coldest. In the
30906	evening the case was exactly reversed.
30907	Thus Herodotus would not be de-
30908	scribing any fact, but only his own
30909	conceptions of what must be the case.
30910	It may, however, be questioned whether
30911	this is a full account of the matter.
30912	Herodotus is apparently narrating
30913	luhat he had heard, and it belongs to
30914	his simplicity not to mix up his own
30915	speculations with the relations which
30916	he had received from others. Pro-
30917	bably his own anticipations had been
30918	confu-med by the accounts which had
30919	reached him of the actual climate of
30920	the gold region. The following state-
30921	ment is made by Moorcroft with
30922	regard to the temperature of the region
30923	north of the Himalaya : — " At eight
30924	in the morning the sun overtops the
30925	hills which surroxmd the little valley
30926	of Niti, and blazes with a fierceness
30927	of which we were ihQ more sensible
30928	from the cold of the morning. About
30929	three the heat falls off raost rapidly.
30930	I have never before experienced so
30931	sudden a transition from heat to cold,
30932	and contrariwise. At night I am only
30933	comfortably warm with all the bed-
30934	clothes that I can muster. At sun-
30935	rise a thick coarse woollen wrapping-
30936	21,2
p. 492
30937	494
30938	EXTREME REGIONS MOST WONDERFUL. Book III.
30939	105. When the Indians reach the place where the
30940	gold is, they fill their bags with the sand, and ride
30941	away at their best speed : the ants, however, scenting
30942	them, as the Persians say, rush forth in pursuit. Now
30943	these animals are so swift, they declare, that there is
30944	nothing in the world like them : if it were not, there-
30945	fore, that the Indians get a start while the ants are
30946	mustering, not a single gold-gatherer could escape.
30947	During the flight the male camels, which are not so
30948	fleet as the females, grow tired, and begin to drag, first
30949	one, and then the other ; but the females recollect the
30950	young which they have left behind, and never give
30951	way or flag/ Such, according to the Persians, is the
30952	manner in which the Indians get the greater part of
30953	their gold ; some is dug out of the earth, but of this
30954	the suj^ply is more scanty.^
30955	106. It seems as if the extreme regions of the earth
30956	were blessed by nature with the most excellent produc-
30957	tions, just in the same way that Greece enjoys a climate
30958	more excellently tempered than any other country.^ In
30959	gown, over-sliirt, cotton waistcoat,
30960	and double cotton coat, is only just
30961	sufficient to keep out the cold. At
30962	nine the outer coat must be thrown
30963	off ; at ten it is desirable to get quit
30964	of the other ; and at noon the rest of
30965	the garments are at least incommo-
30966	dious from the heat. The reverse of
30967	this process becomes necessary from
30968	half-past three till night" (As. Res.
30969	vol. xii. p. 399, note). It must be
30970	remembered that in Greece, as with
30971	ourselves, the afternoon was the warm-
30972	est part of the day (see Buttmann's
30973	Lexilogus, p. 225, and especially
30974	note ^).
30975	' Marco Polo relates that when the
30976	Tatars make incursions into the
30977	country lying to the north of them,
30978	they adopt the same device of riding
30979	mares which have foals, and which
30980	are therefore anxious to get back to
30981	their young. (Travels, p. 745.)
30982	^ Tiie whole of this region of Cen-
30983	tral Asia is in the highest degree auri-
30984	ferous. The ranges of the Hindoo-
30985	Koosh, Belur Tagh, Mus Tagh, and
30986	Altai, especially abound with this
30987	precious metal. In the Altai moun-
30988	tains, rude traces of ancient mining
30989	have been found. (Heeren's As. Nat.
30990	i, p. 47.) Bokhara and Thibet are
30991	especially renowned for their produc-
30992	tiveness. On the gold of Thibet, see
30993	As. Res. vol. xii., pp. 437-9, &c.
30994	" Herodotus seems to ascribe the
30995	excellence of the climate of Greece to
30996	its central situation, equall}'' remote
30997	from all the extremities of the earth.
30998	He does not see that this centrality is
30999	only relative, each nation being the
31000	centre of the world known to it.
31001	Aristotle (Polit. vii. 6) goes beyond
31002	Herodotus, and attributes the well-
31003	attempered disposition of the Greeks
31004	to the same cause, {to rav 'EXXrjvav
31005	yevos, acnrep fie (r eve i Kara tovs
31006	TOTTOVs, ovTcos afx^olv fierex^t, Koi
31007	yap evdvp-ov Koi diavojjriKou ecm.)
p. 493
31008	Chap. 105-107.
31009	TKEE-WOOL OF INDIA.
31010	495
31011	India, which, as I observed lately, is the furthest region
31012	of the inhabited world towards the east, all the four-
31013	footed beasts and the birds are very much bigger than
31014	those found elsewhere, except only the horses, which
31015	are surpassed by the Median breed called the NisEean/
31016	Gold too is produced there in vast abundance, some dug
31017	from the earth, some washed down by the rivers, some
31018	carried off in the mode which I have but now described.
31019	And further, there are trees which grow wild there,
31020	the fruit whereof is a wool exceeding in beauty and
31021	goodness that of sheep. The natives make their clothes
31022	of this tree-wool.^
31023	107. Arabia is the last of inhabited lands towards
31024	the south, and it is the only country which produces
31025	frankincense, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and ladanum.®
31026	The Arabians^ do not get any of these, except the
31027	* Nissea (Nisaj^a) is mentioned as
31028	a district of Media in the Behistun
31029	Inscription (Col. i. par. 13, § 11).
31030	Concerning its locality and the excel-
31031	lency of its horses, see note on Book
31032	vii. oh. 40.
31033	* Vide supra, cli. 47. " Tree-wool "
31034	is exactly the German name for cotton
31035	(^Baumwolle).
31036	^ Ledanon or ladanon, a resin or
31037	glim, answering to the ladin of the
31038	Arabs, was produced by the shrub
31039	ledon, the Cistus Creticus of Diosco-
31040	rides, or Cistus ladaniferus, a native
31041	of Cyprus and Candia. (Cp. Plin. xii.
31042	17 ; see below, n. ch. 112.) It is now
31043	brought from Constantinoi)le and the
31044	Greek islands. It differed from the
31045	libanotus or frankincense, which was
31046	produced by the libanus-tree,the Juni-
31047	perus Lycia, or the Bosivellia Thuri-
31048	fera, a native of Arabia, whence Virgil
31049	says, " Solis est thurea virga Sabajis."
31050	(G. ii. 117.) This last was used for
31051	sacrifices (Her. i. 183 ; ii. 40), and not
31052	for embalming (Her. ii. 86). It is the
31053	liban of the Arabs, and the same as the
31054	Hebrew libaneh or liboneh, " incense,"
31055	which came from Sheba or southern
31056	Arabia (Is. Lx. 6 ; Jer. vi. 20). The
31057	liban, which is explained in Arabic by
31058	the word " kondor," answers to the
31059	■)(6vhpos Xt^avarov of the Greek, the
31060	" granum thuris." The bokhoor-el-
31061	burr, so common in Syria and Egypt,
31062	the coarse jiarticles of frankincense,
31063	made into a cake and used for in-
31064	cense, as in some Christian churches,
31065	seems to be an inferior kind of " gra-
31066	num," or " mica thuris." The liban
31067	or libanotus is still a production of
31068	Arabia, particularly of Hadramaut.
31069	Herodotus extends the epithet " liba-
31070	notophoros, " or thuri ferns, to all Arabi a
31071	(B. ii. ch. 8.) The name liban would
31072	seem to be taken from its whiteness,
31073	lubn, lebn, of the Hebrew, whence
31074	lubn, " milk," and Mount Lebanon
31075	(or Mont Blanc), so called from its
31076	snow. Pliny (xii. 17), citing Hero-
31077	dotus, says the Arabs brought yearly
31078	a talent- weight of " thus " to the
31079	kings of Persia, and he erroneously
31080	thinks it went to Persia at an earlier
31081	time than to Syria or Egypt. — [G. W.]
31082	7 The Arabs supplied Egypt with
31083	various spices and gums which were
31084	required for embalming and other pur-
31085	poses. In Genesis xxxvii. 25, the
31086	Ishmaelites or Arabs were going to
31087	Egypt from " Gilead Avitii their camels
31088	bearing spicery, and balm, and
p. 494
31089	496
31090	ARABIAN SPICES.
31091	Book III.
31092	myrrli,^ without trouble. The frankincense they pro-
31093	cure by means of the gum styrax,® which the Grreeks
31094	obtain from the Phoenicians ; this they burn, and
31095	thereby obtain the spice. For the trees which bear
31096	the frankincense are guarded by winged serpents, small
31097	in size, and of varied colours, whereof vast numbers
31098	hang about every tree. They are of the same kind as
31099	the serpents that invade Egypt ; ^° and there is nothing
31100	but the smoke of the styrax which will drive them from
31101	the trees.
31102	108. The Arabians say that the whole world would
31103	swarm with these serpents, if they were not kept in
31104	check in the way in which I know that vipers are. Of
31105	a truth Divine Providence does appear to be, as indeed
31106	one might expect beforehand, a wise contriver. For
31107	timid animals which are a prey to others are all made
31108	to produce young abundantly, that so the species may
31109	not be entirely eaten up and lost ; while savage and
31110	noxious creatures are made very unfruitful. The
31111	hare, for instance, which is hunted alike by beasts,
31112	birds, and men, breeds so abundantly as even to super-
31113	fetate,^ a thing which is true of no other animal. You
31114	find in a hare's belly, at one and the same time, some
31115	of the young all covered with fur, others quite naked,
31116	others again just fully formed in the womb, while the
31117	myrrh." (See n. B. ii. cli. 8G.) The
31118	names are nukath, HNDJ styrax (the
31119	Arabic nukah, ^\^j), gum tragacanth,
31120	tziri ■'IV opobalsam, and lot tD? laden.
31121	— [G. W.]
31122	' Smyrna, the Greek name of myrrh,
31123	is the same as that of the city. " Mir "
31124	(Exod. XXX. 23), the Hebrew word,
31125	is said to be from its " dropping." It
31126	either gave its name to, or received
31127	it from, " bitterness," mir or mor sig-
31128	nifying "bitter," both in Hebrew and
31129	Arabic. The tree which produces it
31130	is a native of Arabia and of the So-
31131	mauli country S. of Abj'ssinia (called
31132	by EhrenbergBalsamodendron mjTrlia
31133	(Strabo, xvi. p. 535 ; Diodor. ii. 49).
31134	Plutarch (de Isid. s. 80) says the
31135	Egyptians called it " bed," but in
31136	Coptic it had the name " shed," which
31137	to a Greek would have been unpro-
31138	noimceable and unwi'itable. — [G. W.]
31139	^ This is the " gum storax" of mo-
31140	dern commerce.
31141	'" Vide supra, ii. 76. If serpents,
31142	they should be oviparous. — [G. W.]
31143	' This fact has been often ques-
31144	tioned ; bi;t (as Bahr shows) it has in
31145	its favour Linnajus, and the author
31146	of the AUgemeine Historic der Natur
31147	(Hamb. and Leips. 1757). The former
31148	says : " Lepus immensus parturitione
31149	per totam £estatem, superfetatione baud
31150	rara" (i. p. 161).
p. 495
31151	Chap. 108, 109.
31152	WINGED SERPENTS.
31153	497
31154	hare perhaps has lately conceived afresh. The lioness,
31155	on the other hand, which is one of the strongest and
31156	boldest^ of brutes, brings, forth young but once in her
31157	lifetime,^ and then a single cub ; * she cannot possibly
31158	conceive again, since she loses her womb at the same
31159	time that she drops her young. The reason of this is,
31160	that as soon as the cub begins to stir inside the dam,
31161	his claws, which are sharper than those of any other
31162	animal, scratch the womb ; as time goes on, and he
31163	grows bigger, he tears it ever more and more ; so that
31164	at last, when the birth comes, there is not a morsel in
31165	the whole womb that is sound.
31166	109. Now with respect to the vipers and the winged
31167	snakes of Arabia, if they increased as fast as their
31168	nature would allow, impossible were it for man to
31169	maintain himself upon the earth. Accordingly it is
31170	found that when the male and female come together,
31171	at the very moment of impregnation, the female seizes
31172	the male by the neck, and having once fastened, cannot
31173	be brought to leave go till she has bit the neck entirely
31174	through. And so the male perishes ; but after a while
31175	he is revenged upon the female by means of the
31176	young, which, while still unborn, gnaw a passage
31177	through the womb, and then through the belly of their
31178	mother, and so make their entrance into the world.
31179	Contrariwise, other snakes, which are harmless, lay
31180	eggs, and hatch a vast number of young. Vipers are
31181	found in all parts of the world, but the winged serpents
31182	* The courage of the lion has been
31183	recently called in question by Mr.
31184	Gordon Cummins; and Dr. Living-
31185	stone, whose experience certainly tends
31186	to lower the character of the king of
31187	brutes. Still, under the pressure of
31188	hunger, or where he has cubs to de-
31189	fend, the boldness of the lion is re-
31190	markable. (See Mr, Gordon Cum-
31191	ming's Lion-Hunter, pp. 119, 316,
31192	&c.)
31193	^ The fabulous character of the
31194	whole of this account was known to
31195	Aristotle, who truly observes that
31196	the lioness brings forth young in the
31197	spring of the year for many years in
31198	succession, and more usually lays up
31199	two cubs than one. (Hist. An. vi.
31200	31.)
31201	■* According to Mr. Gordon Gum-
31202	ming, it is not uncommon for the
31203	lioness to have three or four cubs at a
31204	birth. (Lion-Hunter, pp. 116, 326,
31205	&c.)
p. 496
31206	498
31207	CASSIA.
31208	Book III.
31209	are nowhere seen except in Arabia, where they are all
31210	congregated together. This makes them appear so
31211	numerous.
31212	110. Such, then, is the way in which the Arabians
31213	obtain their frankincense ; their manner of collecting
31214	the cassia ^ is the following : — They cover all their body
31215	and their face with the hides of oxen and other skins,
31216	leaving only holes for the eyes, and thus protected go
31217	in search of the cassia, which grows in a lake of no
31218	great depth. All round the shores and in the lake
31219	itself there dwell a number of winged animals, much
31220	resembling bats, which screech horribly, and are very
31221	valiant. These creatures they must keep from their
31222	eyes all the while that they gather the cassia.®
31223	111. Still more wonderful is the mode in which they
31224	collect the cinnamon.'' Where the wood grows, and
31225	' Cassia and cinnamon, according
31226	to Larclier (note ad loc), are from the
31227	same tree, the only difference being
31228	that cinnamon is properly the branch
31229	with the bark on ; cassia is the bark
31230	■without the branch. Since the former
31231	ceased to be an article of commerce,
31232	the latter has usurped its name. Thus
31233	our cinnamon is not the cinnamon of
31234	the ancients, but their cassia. The
31235	word cassia is derived from a Hebrew
31236	root (VVp), which means " to cut or
31237	scrape off the surface ;" whence also
31238	^^)i\?^, " a plane."
31239	* The cassia is supposed to be the
31240	Laurus cassia, or, according to some,
31241	the Cassia fistula. In Hebrew (Exod.
31242	XXX. 24) it is called kedli (HTp) or
31243	ketziah (n^Vp), signifying "split"
31244	or " peeled off," which would apply
31245	to the Laurus cassia, or to our modern
31246	cinnamon. But Herodotus says thej-
31247	" gathered" the cassia, it should not
31248	therefore be cinnamon ; and the Laurus
31249	cassia and Laurus cinnamomimi are
31250	too much alike to be considered in
31251	those days two distinct trees. If a
31252	fruit, was this the nutmeg, the Myris-
31253	tica moschata ? But it is of the
31254	Lauiiis tribe also, and does not grow
31255	in shallow water, nor does the cin-
31256	namon, which requires a dry sandy
31257	soil, as Pliny states (xii. 19). Cassia
31258	is supposed to be the Malay word
31259	kashii, " wood ;" but this and cinna-
31260	mon were perhaps both Arab or Phoe-
31261	nician names. Pliny's description of
31262	the " casia " (xii. 19) certainly agrees
31263	very well with the real cinnamon. —
31264	[G. W.]
31265	^ The modem cinnamon is the rind
31266	of the Laurus cinnamomum of Ceylon,
31267	the Arabic Kirfeh. The name cinna-
31268	momum has been applied to different
31269	plants. That of Herodotus, taken by
31270	birds to build their nests, could not
31271	have been a cinnamon-branch ; and, if
31272	not altogether a fable, should rather
31273	be the calamus, or aromatic reed, men-
31274	tioned in Exodus xxx. 23, and by Di-
31275	odorus, ii. 49 ; Dionysius, Perieg. 937 ;
31276	Plin. xii. 22 ; and other -writers.
31277	Pliny, though he speaks of a bird
31278	building its nest of " cinnamum " in
31279	Arabia (x. 33), denies that the real
31280	cinnamon (cinnamomum) grows in
31281	that coimtry (xii. 18) ; and (in c. 19)
31282	treats " Herodotus as a great dealer in
31283	fables for the storj' of birds building
31284	their nests of cinnamon and cassia,"
31285	which he makes the production of
31286	Ethiopia. The cinnamon was kept
31287	cut like a coppice, and the twigs were
31288	thought the best. The cinnamomum
p. 497
31289	Chap. 110, 111.
31290	CINNAMON.
31291	499
31292	wLat country produces it, they cannot tell — only some,
31293	following probability, relate that it comes from the
31294	country in which Bacchus was brought up.^ G-reat
31295	birds, they say, bring the sticks which we Greeks,
31296	taking the word from the Phoenicians,^ call cinnamon,
31297	and carry them up into the air to make their nests.
31298	These are fastened with a sort of mud to a sheer face
31299	of rock, where no foot of man is able to climb. So the
31300	Arabians, to get the cinnamon, use the following arti-
31301	fice. They cut all the oxen and asses and beasts of
31302	burthen that die in their land into large pieces, which
31303	they carry with them into those regions, and place near
31304	the nests : then they withdraw to a distance, and the
31305	old birds, swooping down, seize the pieces of meat and
31306	fly with them up to their nests ; which, not being able
31307	to support the weight, break off and fall to the ground.^
31308	or cinnamon was of two Icinrh (Plin.
31309	xii.l9), and the ciunamum which grew
31310	in Syria and Arabia, according to
31311	Pliny, was a distinct plant (xii. 18,
31312	and xvi. 32). A coarse grass still
31313	grows in the deserts between Nubia
31314	and the Red Sea which has the same
31315	aromatic scent as cinnamon. Strabo
31316	(xvi. p. 535, ed. Cas.) mentions cinna-
31317	momum, thns or libanus, and myrrh,
31318	as productions of Arabia ; but this cin-
31319	namon was either a different plant, or
31320	merely imported through that countrJ^
31321	Again, in b. ii. p. 65, and b. xvii,
31322	(begs. p. 540) he maljes it a production
31323	of the countrj^ above Meroe, and in
31324	b. xvii. p. 543, he says Sesostris went
31325	into Ethiopia, even to the " cinnamo-
31326	miferus " region. Others also place
31327	this region to the S. of Abyssinia.
31328	Dionys. Perieg., who mentions it in
31329	Southern Arabia, saj^s (944) : —
31330	'HASov </)uAAa <p4(>ovrts aKT\paxTi<av Kiva-ii-iaftjav.
31331	And this should be Pliny's "cinna-
31332	mum."— [G. AV.j
31333	^ Ethiopia probably, v. s. ii. 146.
31334	^ The Phccnician word was probably
31335	identical with the Hebrew, which is
31336	\|i?33p, cinnamon (Exod. xxx. 23 ;
31337	Cant. iv. 14). Hence the Greek klv-
31338	vafidfiop, and the Latin " cinnamwn.'^
31339	Bochart (Phaleg. ii. iii.) observes that
31340	all the Greek names of spices are of
31341	Semitic origin. Cassia is the ni?'']if\|'p
31342	of Ps. xlv. 9. Myrrh (afxvpva) is
31343	liO (Cant. iii. 6). Frankincense (Xi-
31344	iSai/coros) is HJuV (Cant. iv. 14). In
31345	the same way he identifies galbanum,
31346	bdellium, nard, aloes, &c.,withHebrew
31347	words. Ledanum is omitted from his
31348	list, but perhaps it may be connected
31349	with the Hebrew Di? (Gen. xxxvii.
31350	25 ; cf. Buxtorf ad voc.) As the
31351	Phojnicians imported all these spices
31352	into Greece, they would naturally be
31353	known to the Greeks by Phoenician
31354	names.
31355	' Bochart (1. s. c.) suggests an ety-
31356	mological foundation to this story.
31357	He remarks that in Hebrew the word
31358	p'!^P, kinnim, means " nests," and
31359	\|3p, kinnen, " to build a nest." Hence,
31360	he saj's, an occasion for the fable.
31361	The story, however, evidently belongs
31362	to a whole class of Eastern tales,
31363	wherein an important part is playe(l
31364	by great birds. Compare the rocs in
31365	the story of Sinbad the Sailor in the
31366	Arabian Nights, and the tale related
31367	by Marco Polo (Travels, p. 658) of tlie
31368	mines of Golconda.
p. 498
31369	500
31370	LEDANUM.
31371	Book III.
31372	Hereupon the Arabians return and collect the cinna-
31373	mon, which is afterwards carried from Arabia into
31374	other countries.
31375	112. Ledanum, which the Arabs call ladanum, is pro-
31376	cured in a yet stranger fashion. Found in a most
31377	inodorous place, it is the sweetest-scented of all sub-
31378	stances. It is gathered from the beards of he-goats,^
31379	where it is found sticking like gum, having come from
31380	the bushes on which they browse. It is used in many
31381	sorts of unguents, and is what the Arabs burn chiefly
31382	as incense.
31383	113. Concerning the spices of Arabia let no more
31384	be said. The whole country is scented with them,
31385	and exhales an odour marvellously sweet. There are
31386	also in Arabia two kinds of sheep worthy of admiration,
31387	the like of which is nowhere else to be seen ; ^ the
31388	one kind has long tails, not less than three cubits in
31389	length, which, if they were allowed to trail on the
31390	ground, would be bruised and fall into sores. As it is,
31391	all the shepherds know enough of carpentering to make
31392	little trucks for their sheep's tails. The trucks are
31393	placed under the tails, each sheep having one to him-
31394	* Pliny (xii. 17) says the ladanum
31395	adhered to the hair of goats, as they
31396	browsed upon the mastic shrub, and
31397	this fact evidently led to the state-
31398	ment of Herodotus (see n. * on eh. 107).
31399	The mastic is another resin from the
31400	Pistaccia Orientalis, so common still
31401	in Greece, where it is called, as of old,
31402	(Txivos, a name given also to the P.
31403	Lentisciis.—[G. W.]
31404	^ Sheep of this character have ac-
31405	quired among our writers the name
31406	of Cape Sheep, from the fact that they
31407	are the species chiefly affected by our
31408	settlers at the Cape of Good Hope.
31409	They are common in Africa and
31410	throughout the East, being found not
31411	only in Arabia, but in Persia, Syria,
31412	Affghanistan, Egj'pt, Barbary, and
31413	even Asia Minor. A recent traveller,
31414	writing from Smyrna, says : — " The
31415	sheep of the country are the Cape
31416	sheep, having a kind of apron tail,
31417	entirely of rich maiTowj- fat, extending
31418	to the width of their hind quarters,
31419	and frequently trailing on the ground ;
31420	the weight of the tail is often more
31421	than six or eight pounds." (Fellows's
31422	Asia Minor, p. 10.)
31423	Leo Africanus, writing in the 15th
31424	century, regards the broad tail as the
31425	great difference between the sheep of
31426	Africa and that of Europe. He de-
31427	clares that one which he had seen in
31428	Egypt weighed 80 lbs. He also men-
31429	tions the use of trucks (ix. p. 293
31430	A), wliich is still common in Xorth
31431	Africa : — " Vervecibus," he says,
31432	" adeo crassescit cauda ut seipsos di-
31433	movere non possint ; verum qui eorum
31434	curam gerunt, caudam exiguis vehi-
31435	culis alligantes gradum promovere
31436	faciunt."
p. 499
31437	Chap. 112-115.
31438	EXTREME REGIONS OF EUROPE.
31439	501
31440	self, and the tails are then tied down upon them. The
31441	other kind has a broad tail, which is a cubit across
31442	sometimes.^
31443	114. Where the south declines towards the setting
31444	sun lies the country called Ethiopia, the last inhabited
31445	land in that direction. There gold is obtained in great
31446	plenty,^ huge elephants abound, with wild trees of all
31447	sorts, and ebony ; and the men are taller, handsomer,
31448	and longer lived than anywhere else.
31449	115. Xow these are the furthest regions of the world
31450	in Asia and Libya. Of the extreme tracts of Europe
31451	towards the west I cannot speak with any certainty ;
31452	for I do not allow that there is any river, to which the
31453	barbarians give the name of Eridanus, emptying itself
31454	into the northern sea, whence (as the tale goes) amber
31455	is procured ; ® nor do I know of any islands called the
31456	Cassiterides '' (Tin Islands), whence the tin comes which
31457	* Perhaps a variety, rather than a
31458	distinct species. (Of. Heeren's As. Nat.
31459	vol. ii. p. 119.)
31460	* Vide supra, ch. 22. With regard
31461	to the ebony, see ch. 97, note *. For
31462	the size of the men, see ch. 20, note *.
31463	* Here Herodotus is over-cautious,
31464	and rejects as fable what we can see
31465	to be truth. The amber district upon
31466	the northern sea is the coast of the
31467	Baltic alx)Ut the gulf of Dantzig, and
31468	the mouths of the Vistula and Niemen
31469	(the Frische Xehrung and Kurische
31470	Nehrung of our maps), which is still
31471	one of the best amber regions in the
31472	world. The very name, Eridanus,
31473	lingers there in the Rhodaune, the
31474	small stream which washes the west
31475	side of the town of Dantzig. It is
31476	possible that in early times the name
31477	attached rather to the Vistula than
31478	the Rhodaune. For the word Eri-
31479	danus (= Rhodanus) seems to have
31480	been applied by the early inhabitants
31481	of Europe, especially to great and
31482	strong-running rivers. The Italian
31483	Eridanus (the Po), the Transalpine
31484	Rhodanus (the Rhone), and the still
31485	more northern Rhenus (the Rhine),
31486	a name in which we mav recognise a
31487	similar contraction to that which has
31488	now changed Rhodanus into Rhone,
31489	are all streams of this character. The
31490	main root of the word appears in the
31491	Sanscrit sni-, the Greek pe- pv- (hre-,
31492	hru-, or rhe-, rhu-), the Latin rj-vus,
31493	our ?-/-ver, the German ri'mien, &c.
31494	This root appears to have been com-
31495	mon to all the Indo-Germanic nations.
31496	In Eridanus, Rhodanus, &c., it is
31497	joined with a root dan (==" stream,"
31498	or " water"), which is also very widely
31499	spread, appearing in the words Dcni-
31500	ube, Dane, Z>?iiester, i)nieper, Don,
31501	Donnu, Donetz, Tanais, Tana,, and
31502	perhaps in Jor-dan.
31503	7 This name was applied to the
31504	Selin;v, or Scilly Isles ; and the im-
31505	perfect infoiTiiation respecting the site
31506	of the mines of tin led to the belief
31507	that they were there, instead of on
31508	the mainland (of Cornwall). Strabo
31509	thought they were in the open sea
31510	between Spain and Britain (iii. 125),
31511	and that they produced tin, though
31512	he allows this was exported from Bri-
31513	tain to Gaul. Polybius was aware that
31514	it came from Britain ; and Diodorus
31515	(v. 21, 22) mentions its being found
31516	and smelted near Belerium (the Land's
p. 500
31517	}02
31518	THE TIN ISLANDS.
31519	Book III.
31520	we use. For in the first place the name Eridanus is
31521	manifestly not a barbarian word at all, but a Greek
31522	End), and being i-un into pigs (els
31523	a<TTpaya\a)v pyd/j-ovs) it was carried to
31524	an island off Britain called Ictis, in
31525	carts, at low tide, when the channel is
31526	dry. It was there bought by traders,
31527	who took it on horses through Gaul
31528	to the moirth of the Pihone. He after-
31529	wards speaks of " tin-mines of the
31530	Cassiterides Islands, Ipng off Iberia,
31531	in the ocean," and of the quantity sent
31532	from Britain through Gaul to Massalia
31533	and Narbona. Ictis is the Vectis of
31534	Pliny and Ptolemy, Yecta of Antoni-
31535	nus' Itinerary, now the Isle of Wight,
31536	but the Ictis mentioned by Diodorus
31537	was evidently St. Michael's Mount in
31538	Cornwall. Timasus speaks of Mictis,
31539	6 days' sail from Britain (Plin. iv. 30).
31540	Pliny and Solinus also thought the
31541	Cassiterides were out at sea over
31542	against Spain (iv. 36 ; vii. 57). Strabo
31543	saj-s, " they are 10 in number, one
31544	only inhabited, near to each other, and
31545	lying northward from the port of the
31546	Artabri (Finisterre or Corunna). The
31547	people live by their cattle, and having
31548	mines of tin and lead, they exchange
31549	these and skins for pottery, salt,
31550	and bronze manufactures." Ptolemy
31551	thought they were 10, and P. Mela
31552	(iii. 6) says they were called Cassi-
31553	terides from the tin that abounded
31554	there. He does not mention them in
31555	Britain, but " in Celticis." All these
31556	accounts show how confused an idea
31557	they had of them, and how well the
31558	Phoenicians kept the secret of the tin-
31559	mines, which is further proved by the
31560	well-known story of the Phoenician
31561	captain, who, when chased by a Eo-
31562	man, steered upon a shoal, and caused
31563	the wTeck of his own and his pursuer's
31564	ship, rather than betray it ; for which
31565	he was rewarded from the public
31566	treasury (Strabo, iii. at the end). The
31567	bronze swords, daggers, and spear-
31568	heads of beautiful workmanship, found
31569	in England, which have neither a
31570	Greek nor a Roman type, were pro-
31571	bably ,^rs^ introduced hj this trade.
31572	The Greek name Kaaa-irepos is the
31573	same as the Arabic Kasdeer ; but the
31574	notion that it was a British word is at
31575	once disproved by Kasttra, signifying
31576	" tin " in Sanscrit. Its Hebrew name
31577	Bedeel, ^i^i, "separated," a "substi-
31578	tute " (perhaps an " alloy "), may refer
31579	to its principal use in making bronze,
31580	or to its being found with silver in the
31581	ore. Pliny calls it " lead," or " white
31582	lead" (iv. 30; vii. 57); Pomponius
31583	Mela (iii. 6) merely " lead." A blue
31584	metal in the Egyptian sculptures is
31585	called Khasd, or Khusbt ; and in an-
31586	other place mention is made of Ehasit ;
31587	but this has been thought to be lapis
31588	lazzuli. In Coptic tin is lliram,
31589	or Thran, and Basensh, R.A.Crt6T
31590	According to Mr. Crawford it is called
31591	in India Ealahi, and by the Malays
31592	Timah,
31593	The Arabs call tin safeeh. Their
31594	teneha, " tin-plate," bears a resem-
31595	blance to the German 2 wi72, the Swedish
31596	tenn, the Icelandic din, and our tin.
31597	Pliny (iv. 34) mentions it in the
31598	North of Spain ; and a small quantity
31599	is still found in Lugo, and another
31600	district of Gallicia ; but it was prin-
31601	cipally obtained by the Phoenicians
31602	from Britain. It is, however, pro-
31603	bable, from its being known by the
31604	Sanscrit name kasttia, that it went
31605	at a very remote period from the
31606	Malay Islands to India and Central
31607	Asia ; and Ezekiel mentions tin, with
31608	silver, iron, and lead, coming to Tyre
31609	from Tarshish (xxvii. 12), which was
31610	the same Tarshish, on the Indian
31611	Ocean, whence Solomon received
31612	" gold, silver, ivory, apes, and pea-
31613	cocks," once every three years (2
31614	Chron. ix. 21), and to which the ships
31615	built by Jehoshaphat and Ahaziah
31616	were to 20 from Eziongeber " on the
31617	Eed Sea" in the land of Edom" (1
31618	Kings ix. 26). The first mention of
31619	tin in the Bible is in Numbers xxxi.
31620	22 ; and in Isaiah i. 25, and Ezek.
31621	xxli. 18, it is mentioned as an alloy.
31622	It is not possible to decide when it
31623	was first brought from Britain, but
31624	probably at a very early time. Tin
31625	is mentioned in the Periplus among
31626	the imports /ro7?i Egypt to the Indian
p. 501
31627	Chap. 116.
31628	AMBER— GOLD REGION OF EUROPE.
31629	503
31630	name, invented by some poet or other ; and secondly,
31631	though I have taken vast pains, I have never been able
31632	to get an assurance from an eye-witness that there is
31633	any sea on the further side of Europe. Nevertheless,
31634	tin and amber ^ do certainly come to us from the ends
31635	of the earth.
31636	116. The northern parts of Europe are very much
31637	richer in gold than any other region : ^ but how it is pro-
31638	coast, and it was brousilit long before
31639	that from Britain by the Phoenicians.
31640	Tin was not discovered in Germany
31641	till 1240 A.D.
31642	The quantity used of old for making
31643	bronze was very great, and the remote
31644	period when that mixed metal was
31645	made shows how early the mines of
31646	one or the other of these countries
31647	were known. An Egyptian bronze,
31648	apparently cast, has been found bearing
31649	the name" of Papi of the 6th dynasty,
31650	more than 2000 years B.C. ; and bronze
31651	knives appear from the sculptures
31652	to have been used before that time.
31653	Bronze was iirst merely hammered
31654	into shape, then cast, then cast hollow
31655	on a core or inner mould. In Egj-pt,
31656	AssjTia, Greece, and Rome, it had
31657	generally 10 or 20 parts of tin to 90
31658	or 80 of copper, but for ornamental
31659	purposes the alloys varied, and silver
31660	was sometimes introduced.
31661	One i3ig of tin has been found in
31662	England, which, as it differs from
31663	those made by the Romans, Normans,
31664	and others, is supposed to be Phoe-
31665	nician. It is remarkable from its
31666	shape, and from a particular mark
31667	upon it, evidently taken from the
31668	usual form of the trough into which
31669	the metal was run. It is in the
31670	Truro Museum, and a cast of it is in
31671	the Museum of Practical Geology in
31672	London. It is about 2 ft. 11 in. long,
31673	11 in. broad, and 3 in. high.
31674	The Carthaginians also went to
31675	Britain for tin, as the Tyrians had
31676	before. See the Poem of Festus Avi-
31677	enus on Himilco's exploring the N.W.
31678	coasts of Europe, between 362 and
31679	350 B.C. The islands of the Albioni
31680	and Hiberui are both mentioned, and
31681	the tin islands Q:]stiymnides near
31682	Albion. (Of Carthage and earlj' Greek
31683	colonies, see Veil. Paterculus, and n. *
31684	on Book ii. ch. 32.)— [G. W.]
31685	® Herodotus is quite correct in his
31686	information respecting amber being
31687	found at the extremity of Europe,
31688	though not at the West. Sotacus (ac-
31689	cording to Pliny, sxxvii. 11) thought
31690	in Britain. Pliny mentions the in-
31691	sects in amber, and speaks of its
31692	coming from North Germany, where
31693	it was called " glesum " (glass ?).
31694	Compare Tacit. Germ. 45. Diodorus
31695	(v. 22) says it is found at an island
31696	above Gaul, over against Scj'thia,
31697	called Basilea, thrown up by the sea,
31698	and nowhere else. It still comes mainly
31699	from the south coast of the Baltic,
31700	between Konigsberg and Mem el, but
31701	is not quite unkno^vn in other parts
31702	of Europe. It is remarkable that the
31703	amber of Catania contains insects of
31704	Europe, that of the Baltic has insects
31705	of Asia.— [G. W.]
31706	^ It appears, by the mention of the
31707	Arimaspi, that the European gold re-
31708	gion of which Herodotus here speaks,
31709	is the district east of the Ural Moun-
31710	tains, which modem geogra]3hy would
31711	assign to Asia. (Vide infra, iv. 27.)
31712	Herodotus, it must be remembered,
31713	regards Europe as extending the whole
31714	length of both Africa and Asia, since
31715	he makes the Phasis, the Caspian, and
31716	the Araxes (Jaxartes) the boundaries
31717	between Asia and Europe (infra, iv.
31718	45). He would therefore assign the
p. 502
31719	504
31720	THE RIVER ACES.
31721	Book III.
31722	cured I have no certain knowledge. The story runs,
31723	that the one-eyed Arimaspi purloin it from the griffins ;
31724	but here too I am incredulous, and cannot persuade
31725	myself that there is a race of men born with one eye,
31726	who in all else resemble the rest of mankind. Never-
31727	theless it seems to be true that the extreme regions of
31728	the earth, which surround and shut up within them-
31729	selves all other countries, produce the things which are
31730	the rarest, and which men reckon the most beautiful.
31731	117, There is a plain in Asia which is shut in on all
31732	sides by a mountain-range, and in this mountain-range
31733	are five openings. The plain lies on the confines of
31734	the Chorasmians, Hyrcanians, Parthians, Sarangians,
31735	and Thaminasans, and belonged formerly to the first-
31736	mentioned of those peoples. Ever since the Persians,
31737	however, obtained the mastery of Asia, it has been the
31738	property of the Great King. A mighty river, called
31739	the Aces,^" flows from the hills inclosing the plain ; and
31740	this stream, formerly, splitting into five channels, ran
31741	through the five openings in the hills, and watered the
31742	lands of the five nations which dwell around. The
31743	whole of Siberia, including the Ural
31744	and Altai chains, to Europe. The
31745	Russian gold-mines in these moun-
31746	tain-ranges, which were not very pro-
31747	ductive up to a recent period (Heeren's
31748	As. Nat. i. p. 45), have yielded enor-
31749	mously of late years. The annual
31750	production at the present time is said
31751	to be from four to five million pounds
31752	sterling.
31753	'" The Aces has been taken for the
31754	Oxus (Ji/hun), the Ochus (Tejend?),
31755	the Margus {Murgah), the Acesines
31756	{Chenab), and the Etymander (Htl-
31757	mend). See Bahr ad loc. It should
31758	undoubtedly be a stream in the vi-
31759	cinity of the Elbnrz range, near
31760	Meshed or Herat, where alone the
31761	territories of the five nations named
31762	could approach one another. But no
31763	river can be found which at all answers
31764	the description. The plain and the
31765	five openings are probably a fable ;
31766	but the origin of the tale may be
31767	found in the distribution by the Per-
31768	sian Government of the waters (most
31769	likely) of the Heri-rud, which is
31770	capable of being led through the hills
31771	into the low country north of the
31772	range, or of being prolonged westward
31773	along the range, or finally of being
31774	turned southward into the^ desert.
31775	(See Ferrier's Caravan Journeys, pp.
31776	139 et seqq.) The wild tribes now
31777	quarrel for this stream, and not un-
31778	frequently turn its course. In such
31779	quarrels blood is often shed, and some-
31780	times they are even the occasion of
31781	actual wars (ibid. jjp. 276, 305, &c.).
31782	Under a strong government, the Avater
31783	sujiply would of course have been
31784	regulated, and so good an opiwrtunity
31785	of raising a revenue was no doubt
31786	seized with alacrity. For the modern
31787	Persian custom see the next note.
p. 503
31788	Chap. 117, 118.
31789	SALE OF WATER IN PERSIA.
31790	505
31791	Persian came, however, and conquered the region, and
31792	then it went ill with the people of these lands. The
31793	Great King blocked up all the passages between the
31794	hills with dykes and flood-gates, and so prevented
31795	the water from flowing out. Then the plain within
31796	the hills became a sea, for the river kept rising, and
31797	the water could find no outlet. From that time the
31798	five nations which were wont formerly to have the use
31799	of the stream, losing their accustomed supply of water,
31800	have been in great distress. In winter, indeed, they
31801	have rain from heaven like the rest of the world, but
31802	in summer, after sowing their millet and Iheir sesame,
31803	they always stood in need of water from the river.
31804	When, therefore, they suffer from this want, hastening
31805	to Persia, men and women alike, they take their station
31806	at the gate of the king's palace, and wail aloud. Then
31807	the king orders the flood-gates to be opened towards
31808	the country whose need is greatest, and lets the soil
31809	drink until it has had enough ; after which the gates
31810	on this side are shut, and others are unclosed for the
31811	nation which, of the remainder, needs it most. It has
31812	been told me that the king never gives the order to
31813	open the gates till the suppliants have paid him a large
31814	sum of money over and above the tribute.^^
31815	118. Of the seven Persians who rose up against the
31816	Magus, one, Intaphernes, lost his life very shortly after
31817	the outbreak,^ for an act of insolence. He wished to
31818	" The sale of water is now practised
31819	throughout the whole of Persia, and
31820	the money thus raised forms a consi-
31821	derable item in the revenue. Each
31822	province has its Mirab, or Water-Lord,
31823	who superintends the distribution of
31824	the water within his district, and col-
31825	lects the payments due on this account
31826	from the inhabitants. Chardin says —
31827	" Chaque province a un ofScier e'tabli
31828	sur les eaux de la province, qu'on
31829	appelle Mirab, c'est-a-dire Prince de
31830	V Eau, qui regie la distribution de
31831	I'eau partout, avec grande exactitude,
31832	ayant toujours ses gens aux courans
31833	des ruisseaux pour les faire aller de
31834	canton en canton, et de champ en
31835	champ, selon ses ordres. . . Les terres
31836	et les jardins d'lspahan, et des en-
31837	virons, payent vingt sols I'anne'e au
31838	Iloi par girib, qui est leur mesure de
31839	terre ordinaire, laquelle est moindre
31840	qu'un arpent " (torn. iii. p. 100. Com-
31841	lare Chesney's Euphrat. Exp. vol. ii.
31842	p. 660).
31843	' It seems probable that Herodotus
31844	places this event too early in the his-
31845	tory. It can scarcely have occurred
p. 504
31846	506 FATE OF INTAPHERNES. Book III.
31847	enter the palace and transact a certain business with
31848	the king. Now the law was that all those who had
31849	taken part in the rising against the Magus might enter
31850	unannounced into the king's presence, unless he hap-
31851	pened to he in private with his wife.^ So Intaphernes
31852	would not have any one announce him, but, as he
31853	belonged to the seven, claimed it as his right to go in.
31854	The doorkeeper, however, and chief usher forbade his
31855	entrance, since tbe king, they said, was with his wife.
31856	But Intaphernes thought they told lies ; so, drawing
31857	his scymitar, he cut off their noses and their ears,^ and,
31858	hanging them on the bridle of his horse, put the bridle
31859	round their necks, and so let them go.
31860	119. Then these two men went and showed them-
31861	selves to the kinor, and told him how it had come to
31862	pass that they were thus treated. Darius trembled lest
31863	it was by the common consent of the six that the deed
31864	had been done ; he therefore sent for them all in turn,
31865	and sounded them to know if they approved the con-
31866	duct of Intaphernes. When he found by their answers
31867	that there had been no concert between him and them,
31868	he laid hands on Intaphernes, his children, and all
31869	his near kindred ; strongly suspecting that he and his
31870	friends were about to raise a revolt. When all had been
31871	seized and put in chains, as malefactors condemned to
31872	death, the wife of Intaphernes came and stood con-
31873	before the revolt of Babj'lon (infra,
31874	150-9), or Intaphernes would not have
31875	regarded him as king of Persia before
31876	Darius. (Pers. 1. 774, Scholef. Corn-
31877	occupied the post of honour which he pare, however, Blomfield's note ad
31878	fills in the Behistun Inscription (Col.
31879	iv. par. 18, § 4), which was set up
31880	subsequently to that event. (See Col.
31881	Rawliuson's Additional Xote on the
31882	Beh. Insc. p. xii.)
31883	'^ Supra, eh. 84. It may be sus-
31884	jjected tliat the revolt of Intaphernes
31885	was a more serious matter than Hero-
31886	dotus imagined. .Sschylus, who made
31887	Intaphernes (his Artaphrenes) the
31888	actual slayer of the Pseudo-Smerdis,
31889	loo.)
31890	' This mode of punishment has
31891	always been common in the East.
31892	With regard to its frequeucj- in an-
31893	cient Persia see note * to ch. 69.
31894	Chardin notices its continuance to his
31895	day (tom. iii. p. 293). Its infliction
31896	by the revolted Sepoys on our own
31897	countrjTnen and countrywomen in
31898	1857 will occur to all readers.
p. 505
31899	Chap. 119, 120. ORCETES, SATRAP OF SARDIS.
31900	507
31901	tinually at the palace-gates, weeping and wailing sore.
31902	So Darius after a while, seeing that she never ceased
31903	to stand and weep, was touched with pity for her, and
31904	bade a messenger go to her and say, " Lady, king
31905	Darius gives thee as a boon the life of one of thy kins-
31906	men— choose which thou wilt of the prisoners." Then
31907	she pondered awhile before she answered, " If the king
31908	grants me the life of one alone, I make choice of my
31909	brother." Darius when he heard the reply, was asto-
31910	nished, and sent again, saying, " Lady, the king bids
31911	thee tell him why it is that thou passest by thy husband
31912	and thy children, and preferrest to have the life of thy
31913	brother spared. He is not so near to thee as thy
31914	children, nor so dear as thy husband." She answered,
31915	"Oh! king, if the gods will, I may have another hus-
31916	band and other children when these are gone. But as
31917	my father and my mother are no more, it is impossible
31918	that I should have another brother.* This was my
31919	thought when I asked to have my brother spared."
31920	Then it seemed to Darius that the lady spoke well,
31921	and he gave her, besides the life that she had asked,
31922	the life also of her eldest son, because he was greatly
31923	pleased with her. But he slew all the rest. Thus one
31924	of the seven died, in the way I have described, very
31925	shortly after the insurrection.
31926	120. About the time of Cambyses' last sickness,
31927	the following events happened. There was a certain
31928	Oroetes,^ a Persian, whom Cyrus had made governor of
31929	Sardis. This man conceived a most unholy wish. He
31930	had never suffered wrong ® or had an ill word from Poly-
31931	* The resemblance of this to Anti-
31932	gone's speech is very striking : —
31933	irdcrts /xev av (jioi, KarBavovTOf, dAAos ^i',
31934	KaX Traij an' iWov (jtuiTOi, el TOvS' tjh-ttAoucoi'"
31935	IxrjTpoi; S' ev AtSoy Kal Trarpbc KGKevOoTOLVt
31936	oiiK ioT aS€A(^bs 6<7Ti5 av p\a<TTol ttotc.
31937	Soph. Antig. 909-912.
31938	But the internal evidence would show
31939	Sophocles rather than Herodotus to
31940	VOL. II.
31941	have been the plagiarist. (See Blakes-
31942	ley's note ad loc.)
31943	* Orontes, according to other writers.
31944	(Diod. Sic. xxi. ; Lucian. Conteoipl.
31945	14.)
31946	* Diodorus (1. s. c.) mentions an
31947	outrage committed by Polycrates,
31948	which he regards as a ground of quar-
31949	rel between him and Orcetes. Certain
31950	2 M
p. 506
31951	508
31952	MITROBATES OF DASCYLEIUM.
31953	Book III.
31954	crates the Samian — nay, lie bad not so much as seen
31955	him in all his life ; yet, notwithstaudiug, he conceived
31956	the wish to seize him and put him to death. This wish,
31957	according to the account which the most part give,
31958	arose from what happened one day as he was sitting
31959	with another Persian in the gate of the king's palace.
31960	The man's name was Mitrohates, and he was ruler of
31961	the satrapy of Dascyleium.' He and Oroetes had been
31962	Lydians, he says, had fled from the
31963	oppressive government of the Sardian
31964	Satrap, and taken refuge at Samos.
31965	Polycrates received them courteously,
31966	but afterwards murdered them for the
31967	sake of their wealth. But it is not
31968	easy to see how this would anger
31969	Orcetes, who could have had no par-
31970	ticular interest in the welfare of the
31971	fugitives.
31972	'^ Dascyleium was the capital city
31973	of the great northern satrapy, which
31974	at this time (according to Herodotus,
31975	supra, ch. 90) included the whole of
31976	Phrygia. In later times central Phrygia
31977	certainly formed a distinct satrapy,
31978	and the satrapy of which Dascyleium
31979	was the capital was called the satrapy
31980	of Mysia, of Phrygia on the Hellespont,
31981	or sometimes of ^Eolis. (Cf. Arrian.
31982	i. 12, and Xen. Hell. iii. i. 10 and ii.
31983	1.) Xenophon describes the city as
31984	a most luxurious residence. " Here,"
31985	he says, " was the palace of the sa-
31986	trap, Pharnabazus ; and in the neigh-
31987	bourhood were many great villages
31988	abounding with all the necessaries of
31989	life. There were vast numbers of
31990	animals of the chase, some in enclosed
31991	parks, others in the open countiy. A
31992	river flowed by full of all kinds of
31993	fish : and there were also in the re-
31994	gion round about a multitude of birds
31995	for such as were skilled in fowling."
31996	(Hellen. lY. i. § 15.)
31997	The beauty of the scenery and the
31998	richness of the soil in this part of
31999	Bithynia are noticed by modern tra-
32000	vellers. (Hamilton's Asia Minor, ii.
32001	p. 85.) The exact site of Dascyleium
32002	is doubtful. The modern Turkish vil-
32003	lage of DiasJciUi, which certainly re-
32004	tains the name, is supposed to mark
32005	the place where the city stood. (Ren-
32006	nell, W. Asia, i. p. 104.) If that vil-
32007	lage, however, be coiTectly given in
32008	the maps, which all place it upon the
32009	coast, I carmot think that it occujiies
32010	the site of the ancient Dascyleium.
32011	That city must, I think, like all the
32012	other Asiatic capitals (Sardis, Ceten^,
32013	Xanthus, Tarsus, &c.) have lain at
32014	some distance from the shore. This
32015	is evidenced by the silence of Xeno-
32016	phon and Strabo, and the omission of
32017	Dascyleium from Scylax's Periplus.
32018	From the two passages in Strabo (xii.
32019	p. 797 and 830) where Dascyleium is
32020	mentioned, it may be collected that it
32021	lay upon the modem Lufer Su, the
32022	Nilofer of Renuell, where that stream
32023	formed a lake, Strabo's lake Dascj'-
32024	litis, before its junction vdih. the
32025	Rhyndacus. The maps mostly make
32026	the Lufer Su run into the sea, a little
32027	to the east of the Rhyndacus. This
32028	is incorrect. The naval surveys have
32029	shown that no river of importance
32030	enters the sea between the Ascanias,
32031	at the head of the gulf of Moudaniah
32032	and the mouth of the Rhyndacus.
32033	There seems to be no doubt, therefore,
32034	although this part of the interior has
32035	not been fully explored, that the Lufer
32036	Su joins the Rhyndacus some way
32037	from its mouth. It would, therefore,
32038	be the Rb;^mus of Hecatasus (Fragm.
32039	202), and the whole statement of that
32040	writer would (with one correction)
32041	express the truth. 'EttI S' 'AXa^la
32042	TToXei TTOTOfibs 6 Pvfios pecov 8ia Mv-
32043	ydovrjs Trebiov otto (1. i tv 1) hvaios in
32044	TTJs Xifj-vrjs r^s AaaKvXiTiSos es 'Pvv-
32045	BuKov eVSaXXet.
32046	According to Stephen (ad voc.)
32047	Dascyleium was founded by a certain
p. 507
32048	Ch. 121, 122. ORCETES PLOTS THE DEATH OF POLYCEATES. 509
32049	talking together, and from talking they fell to quar-
32050	relling and comparing their merits ; whereupon Mitro-
32051	bates said to Oroetes reproachfully, " Art thou worthy
32052	to be called a man, when, near as Samos lies to thy
32053	government, and easy as it is to conquer, thou hast
32054	omitted to bring it under the dominion of the king ?
32055	Easy to conquer, said I ? Why, a mere common citizen,
32056	with the help of fifteen men-at-arms, mastered the
32057	island, and is still king of it." Oroetes, they say, took
32058	this reproach greatly to heart ; but, instead of seeking
32059	to revenge himself on the man by whom it was uttered,
32060	he conceived the desire of destroying Polycrates, since
32061	it was on Polycrates' account that the reproach had
32062	fallen on him.
32063	121. Another less common version of the story is
32064	that Oroetes sent a herald to Samos to make a request,
32065	the nature' of which is not stated ; Polycrates was at
32066	the time reclining in the apartment of the males, and
32067	Anacreon the Teian was with him ; when therefore the
32068	herald came forward to converse, Polycrates, either out
32069	of studied contempt for the power of Oroetes, or it may
32070	be merely by chance, was lying with his face turned
32071	away towards the wall ; and so he lay all the time that
32072	the herald sjoake, and when he ended, did not even
32073	vouchsafe him a word.
32074	122. Such are the two reasons alleged for the death
32075	of Polycrates ; it is open to all to believe which they
32076	please. What is certain is, that Oroetes, while residing
32077	at Magnesia on the Mseander, sent a Lydian, by name
32078	Myrsus, the son of Gyges,^ with a message to Polycrates
32079	at Samos, well knowing what that monarch designed.
32080	For Polycrates entertained a design which no other
32081	Greek, so far as we know, ever formed before him,
32082	unless it were Minos the Cnossian,^ and those (if there
32083	Dascyltis, whom he calls " the son of
32084	Periaudus," It is uncertain whether
32085	he means the father of Gyges.
32086	^ Vide infra, v. 121.
32087	^ Concerning the daXaa-aoKparia of
32088	Minos, cf. Thucyd. i. 4 and 8. Tlie
32089	2 M 2
p. 508
32090	510
32091	HIS LETTER.
32092	Book III.
32093	were any siicli) who had the mastery of the ^gsean
32094	at an earher time — Polycrates, I say, was the first of
32095	mere human birth who conceived the design of gaining
32096	the empire of the sea, and aspired to rule over Ionia
32097	and the islands.^ Knowing then that Polycrates was
32098	thus minded, Oroetes sent his message, which ran as
32099	follows : —
32100	" Oroetes to Polycrates thus sayeth : I hear thou
32101	raisest thy thoughts high, but thy means are not equal
32102	to thy ambition. Listen then to my words, and learn
32103	how thou mayest at once serve thyself and preserve
32104	me. King Cambyses is bent on my destruction — of
32105	this I have warning from a sure hand. Come thou,
32106	therefore, and fetch me away, me and all my wealth —
32107	share my wealth with me, and then, so far as money
32108	can aid, thou mayest make thyself master of the whole
32109	of Grreece. But if thou doubtest of my wealth, send
32110	the trustiest of thy followers, and I will show my
32111	treasures to him."
32112	123. Polycrates, when he heard this message, was
32113	full of joy, and straightway approved the terms ; but,
32114	as money was what he chiefly desired, before stirring
32115	in the business he sent his secretary, Maeandrius, son
32116	of Maeandrius,^ a Samian, to look into the matter.
32117	This was the man who, not very long afterwards, made
32118	an offering at the temple of Juno of all the furniture
32119	which had adorned the male apartments in the palace
32120	of Polycrates, an offering well worth seeing. Oroetes
32121	clear line which Herodotus here draws
32122	between the heroic and the historic
32123	period is very remarlcable. Thucy-
32124	dides makes no such distinction. (See
32125	i. 9-10 ; ii. 15, &c.)
32126	* The Samians are generally said
32127	to have obtained the daXaa-o-oKparia
32128	under Polycrates (cf. Thucyd. i. 13 ;
32129	Euseb. Chron. Can. ii. p. 334; 01.
32130	62, 4), whose authority over the
32131	islands is shown by his taking Ehenea
32132	and giving it to the Delians. (Thuc.
32133	1. s. 0.) According to Eusebius this
32134	was the thirteenth Bakaa-a-onpaTia after
32135	that of Minos ; none of the interme-
32136	diate 6a\acr(ToiS.Tiai, however, are as-
32137	sociated with tlie name of a jyerson.
32138	^ This is the only instance in Hero-
32139	dotus of a Greek bearing the name of
32140	his father. Two cases occur of Per-
32141	sians— Artaphernes, son of Artapher-
32142	nes (vi. 94), and Hydames, son of
32143	Hydarnes (vii. 83). By the time of
32144	Demosthenes, the practice had become
32145	common in Greece. (Cf. Valck. ad
32146	loc.)
p. 509
32147	Chap. 123-125. POLYCEATES ENTEAPPED AND SLAIN.
32148	511
32149	learning that one was coming to view his treasures,
32150	contrived as follows : — he filled eight great chests
32151	almost brimful of stones, and then covering over the
32152	stones with gold, corded the chests, and so held them
32153	in readiness.^ When Mseandrius arrived, he was shown
32154	this as Oroetes' treasure, and having seen it returned to
32155	Samos.
32156	124. On hearing his account, Polycrates, notwith-
32157	standing many warnings given him by the soothsayers,
32158	and much dissuasion of his friends, made ready to go
32159	in person. Even the dream which visited his daughter
32160	failed to check him. She had dreamed that she saw
32161	her father hanging high in air, washed by Jove, and
32162	anointed by the sun. Having therefore thus dreamed,
32163	she used every effort to prevent her father from going ;
32164	even as he went on board his penteconter crying
32165	after him with words of evil omen. Then Polycrates
32166	threatened her that, if he returned in safety, he would
32167	keep her unmarried many years. She answered, " Oh !
32168	that he might perform his threat ; far better for her to
32169	remain long unmarried than to be bereft of her father !"
32170	125. Polycrates, however, making light of all the
32171	counsel offered him, set sail and went to Oroetes. Many
32172	friends accompanied him ; among the rest, Democedes,
32173	the son of Calliphon, a native of Crotona, who was a
32174	physician, and the best skilled in his art of all men then
32175	living. Polycrates, on his arrival at Magnesia, perished
32176	miserably, in a way unworthy of his rank and of his
32177	lofty schemes. For, if we except the Syracusans,* there
32178	has never been one of the Greek tyrants who was to be
32179	compared with Polycrates for magnificence. Oroetes,
32180	however, slew him in a mode which is not fit to be
32181	' Compare the similar artifice by
32182	which Hannibal deceived the Gor-
32183	tyniaus (Corn. Nep. Vit. Hannibal.
32184	§ 9) : " Amphoras complures complet
32185	plumbo ; summas operit auro et ar-
32186	gento."
32187	* Gelo, Hiero, and Thrasybulus,
32188	three brothers, who successively ruleii
32189	over Syracuse from B.C. 485 to B.C.
32190	466. (Vide infra, vii. 153, et seqq.)
32191	For the magnificence of Hiero, see
32192	Pindar. Pyth. i.-iii.
p. 510
32193	512
32194	INSOLENCE OF ORCETES.
32195	Book III.
32196	described,^ and tlien hung liis dead body upon a cross.
32197	His Samian followers Oroetes let go free, bidding them
32198	thank him that they were allowed their liberty ; the
32199	rest, who were in part slaves, in part free foreigners,
32200	he alike treated as his slaves by conquest. Then was
32201	the dream of the daughter of Polycrates fulfilled ; for
32202	Polycrates, as he hung upon the cross, and rain fell
32203	on him, was washed by Jupiter ; and he was anointed
32204	by the sun, when his own moisture overspread his body.
32205	And so the vast good fortune of Polycrates came at
32206	last to the end which Amasis the Egyptian king had
32207	prophesied in days gone by.
32208	126. It was not long before retribution for the
32209	murder of Polycrates overtook Oroetes. After the
32210	death of Cambyses, and during all the time that the
32211	Magus sat upon the throne, Oroetes remained in Sardis,
32212	and brought no help to the Persians, whom the Medes
32213	had robbed of the sovereignty. On the contrary,
32214	amid the troubles of this season,^ he slew Mitrobates,
32215	* It is conjectured that he was flayed
32216	alive. (Wesseling, Bahr, Larcher,
32217	ad loo.) I should be inclined to
32218	suspect some more horrible and un-
32219	usual mode of death, such as that
32220	mentioned by Plutarch in his life of
32221	Artaxerxes, under the name of aKa-
32222	(peva-is, and described by him at great
32223	length (§16).
32224	® The " troubles of this season "
32225	form the main subject-matter of the
32226	Behistun Inscription. They may be
32227	summed up as follows : —
32228	1. A revolt in Susiana, under
32229	Atrines, son of Opadarmes, which was
32230	put down easily.
32231	2. A revolt of Babylonia, under a
32232	pretender claiming to be the son of
32233	the last king, Labynetus (Nabunit),
32234	which was of the most serious cha-
32235	racter, requiring the presence of Darius
32236	himself to quell it. Two great battles
32237	were fought between the king's forces
32238	and the insurgents, in both of which
32239	Darius was victorious. Babylon then
32240	submitted, without standing a siege.
32241	3. A combined revolt of the three
32242	most important provinces of Assyria,
32243	Media, and Armenia. A descendant,
32244	real or supposed, of the ancient line
32245	of Median kings (" Xathrites, of the
32246	race of Cyaxares ") was placed upon
32247	the throne. Six actions were fought
32248	between the rebels and the king's
32249	generals, of whom Hydames was one ;
32250	and at last Darius took the field in
32251	person. Xathrites was then defeated,
32252	taken prisoner, and put to death at
32253	Agbatana. This is the Median revolt
32254	of^Herodotus (i. 130).
32255	4. An unimportant revolt in Sa-
32256	gartia.
32257	5. A rebellion in the eastern pro-
32258	vinces of Parthia, Hyrcania, and Mar-
32259	giana, a district of Bactria, which was
32260	suppressed by Hystaspes, the father
32261	of Darius, aided by Dadarses, satrap
32262	of Bactria.
32263	6. An insurrection in Persia, where
32264	another pretender came forward to
32265	personate Smerdis, and assumed the
32266	title of king of Persia.
32267	7. A rebellion in Arachosia, fo-
32268	mented by this Pseudo-Smerdis. 8.
p. 511
32269	Chap. 126, 127. APPEAL OF DARIUS TO HIS NOBLES.
32270	513
32271	the satrap of Dascyleium, who had cast the reproach
32272	upon him in the matter of Polycrates ; and he slew also
32273	Mitrobates's son, Cranaspes, — both men of high repute
32274	among the Persians. He was likewise guilty of many
32275	other acts of insolence ; among the rest, of the following :
32276	• — There was a courier sent to him by Darius whose
32277	message was not to his mind — Oroetes had him way-
32278	laid and murdered on his road back to the king ; the
32279	man and his horse both disappeared, and no traces were
32280	left of either.
32281	127. Darius therefore was no sooner settled upon the
32282	throne than he longed to take vengeance upon Oroetes
32283	for all his misdoings, and especially for the murder of
32284	Mitrobates and his son. To send an armed force openly
32285	against him, however, he did not think advisable, as
32286	the whole kingdom was «till unsettled, and he too was
32287	but lately' come to the throne, while Oroetes, as he under-
32288	stood, had a great. power. In truth a thousand Persians
32289	attended on him as a body-guard, and he held the
32290	satrapies of Phrygia, Lydia, and Ionia. ^ Darius there-
32291	fore proceeded by artifice. He called together a meet-
32292	ing of all the chief of the Persians, and thus addressed
32293	them : — " Who among you, oh ! Persians, will under-
32294	take to accomplish me a matter by skill without force or
32295	tumult ? Force is misplaced where the work wants
32296	skilful management. Who, then, will undertake to
32297	bring me Oroetes alive, or else to kill him ? He never
32298	did the Persians any good in his life, and he has
32299	wrought us abundant injury. Two of our number,
32300	8. A second revolt of Babylon,
32301	probably the one which Herodotus
32302	intended to describe, which was put
32303	do^\^l by one of Darius's generals,
32304	named Intaphres.
32305	9. A rebellion of the Sacje or Scy-
32306	thians.
32307	These troubles appear to have oc-
32308	cupied the first six years of the reign
32309	of Darius. It is impossible to say at
32310	what point of time within this period
32311	the proceedings against Oroetes took
32312	place. They certainly preceded the
32313	second revolt of Babylon, but perhaps
32314	not by more than a year or two.
32315	' The first, second, and third sa-
32316	trapies of our author (v. s. ch. 90),
32317	being the whole of Asia Minor except
32318	Cilicia. But it may be questioned
32319	whether the satrapial system loas yet
32320	introduced.
p. 512
32321	514
32322	OFFER OF BAG^US,
32323	Book III.
32324	Mitrobates and his son, he has slain ; and when mes-
32325	sengers go to recall him, even though they have their
32326	mandate from me, with an insolence which is not to be
32327	endured, he puts them to death.^ We must kill this
32328	man, therefore, before he does the Persians any greater
32329	hurt."
32330	128. Thus spoke Darius ; and straightway thirty of
32331	those present came forward and offered themselves for
32332	the work. As they strove together, Darius interfered,
32333	and bade them have recourse to the lot. Accordingly
32334	lots were cast, and the task fell to Bagseus, son of
32335	Artontes. Then Bagaeus caused many letters to be
32336	written on divers matters, and sealed them all with
32337	the king's signet ; after which he took the letters with
32338	him, and departed for Sardis. On his arrival he was
32339	shown into the presence of Oroetes, when he uncovered
32340	the letters one by one, and giving them to the king's
32341	secretary — every satrap has with him a king's secre-
32342	tary ® — commanded him to read their contents. Herein
32343	his design was to try the fidelity of the body-guard,
32344	and to see if they would be likely to fall away from
32345	Oroetes. When therefore he saw that they showed
32346	the letters all due respect, and even more highly reve-
32347	renced their contents, he gave the secretary a paper in
32348	which was written, " Persians, king Darius forbids you
32349	to guard Oroetes." The soldiers at these words laid
32350	aside their spears. So Bagseus, finding that they
32351	obeyed this mandate, took courage, and gave into the
32352	secretary's hands the last letter, wherein it was written,
32353	" King Darius commands the Persians who are in
32354	® Turkish pachas and Persian go-
32355	vernors have often had recourse to
32356	similar stratagems. Chardin says
32357	(tom. iii. p. 310) : "II y a des exemples
32358	de gouverneurs qui ont ou retarde, ou
32359	empeche de ces exe'cutions. lis avoient
32360	eu avis qu'on avoit re'solu de les perdre
32361	de cette maniere, et ils avoient mis des
32362	gens en embuscade jMur enlever le cou-
32363	rier, ou pour lui prendre I'ordre du Koi,
32364	en le volant." Ali Pacha is said to
32365	have done this rei^eatedly.
32366	^ In modem Persia the court at-
32367	taches three officers to every governor
32368	of a province, one of whom is even
32369	now called secretary. His business is
32370	to keep the king informed of all that
32371	passes at the court of the governor.
32372	(See Chardin, tom. iii. p. 302.)
p. 513
32373	Chap. 128-130. STORY OF DEMOCEDES, THE CROTONIAT. 515
32374	Sardis to kill Oroetes." Then the guards drew their
32375	swords and slew him upon the spot. Thus did retri-
32376	bution for the murder of Poljcrates the Samian over-
32377	take Oroetes the Persian.
32378	129. Soon after the treasures of Oroetes had been
32379	conveyed to Sardis ^° it happened that king Darius, as
32380	he leaped from his horse during the chase, sprained
32381	his foot. The sprain was one of no common severity,
32382	for the ancle-bone was forced quite out of the socket.
32383	Now Darius already had at his court certain Egyptians
32384	whom he reckoned the best-skilled physicians in all the
32385	world ;^ to their aid, therefore, he had recourse ; but
32386	they twisted the foot so clumsily, and used such violence,
32387	that they only made the mischief greater. For seven
32388	days and seven nights the king lay without sleep, so
32389	grievous was the pain he suffered. On the eighth day
32390	of his indisposition, one who had heard before leaving
32391	Sardis of the skill of Democedes the Crotoniat, told
32392	Darius, who commanded that he should be brought
32393	with all speed into his presence. When, therefore,
32394	they had found him among the slaves of Oroetes, quite
32395	uncared for by any one, they brought him just as he
32396	was, clanking his fetters, and all clothed in rags, before
32397	the king.
32398	130. As soon as he was entered into the presence,
32399	Darius asked him if he knew medicine — to which he
32400	answered " No," for he feared that if he made himself
32401	known he would lose all chance of ever again beholding
32402	Grreece. Darius, however, perceiving that he dealt
32403	deceitfully, and really understood the art, bade those
32404	who had brought him to the presence, go fetch the
32405	'" In the East the disgrace of a
32406	governor, or other great man, has
32407	always involved the forfeiture of his
32408	projierty to the crown. Chardin says :
32409	" Toute disgrace en Perse emporte
32410	infailliblement avec soi la confiscation
32411	des biens" (torn. iii. p. 310). So we
32412	find in the decrees of Cyrus, reported
32413	by Josephns (Antiq. xii. 1), that
32414	transgressors were to be crucified,
32415	and their goods forfeited to the king
32416	(ras ovcrias avrwv dvai ^atrtXiKas) ;
32417	compare also Antiq. xii. ch. 4.
32418	' On the celebrity of the Egyj^tians
32419	as jjhysicians see Book ii. ch. 84,
32420	note , and supra, ch. i. note .
p. 514
32421	516
32422	HOW ATTACHED TO POLYCRATES.
32423	Book HI.
32424	scourges and the pricking-irons.^ Upon this Democedes
32425	made confession, but at the same time said, that he
32426	had no thorough knowledge of medicine — he had but
32427	hved some time with a physician, and in this way
32428	had gained a sHght smattering of the art. However,
32429	Darius put himself under his care, and Democedes, by
32430	using the remedies customary among the Greeks, and
32431	exchanging the violent treatment of the Egyptians for
32432	milder means, first enabled him to get some sleep, and
32433	then in a very little time restored him altogether,
32434	after he had quite lost the hope of ever having the
32435	use of his foot. Hereupon the king presented Demo-
32436	cedes with two sets of fetters wrought in gold ; so
32437	Democedes asked if he meant to double his sufferings,
32438	because he had brought him back to health ? Darius
32439	was pleased at the speech, and bade the eunuchs take
32440	Democedes to see his wives, wdiich they did accordingly,
32441	telling them all that this was the man who had saved
32442	the king's life. Then each of the wives dipped with a
32443	saucer into the chest of gold, and gave so bountifully
32444	to Democedes, that a slave named Sciton, who followed
32445	him, and picked up the staters^ which fell from the
32446	saucers, gathered together a great heap of gold.
32447	131. This Democedes left his country and became
32448	attached to Polycrates in the following way : — His
32449	father, who dwelt at Crotona, was a man of a savage
32450	temper, and treated him cruelly. When, therefore, he
32451	could no longer bear such constant ill-usage, Democedes
32452	left his home, and sailed away to ^gina. There he
32453	* Perhaps the hlindiv g-irous, the
32454	irepovui cnhrjpai of Procopius (De Bell.
32455	Pers. i. 7, § 6). In ancient, as in modern
32456	times, putting out the eyes has been
32457	a Persian punishment. (Cf. Xen.
32458	Anab. i. ix. 13.)
32459	^ By staters we must here under-
32460	stand Darics, the earliest gold-coin of
32461	Persia. Herodotus in another place
32462	calls them Daric staters (vii. 28).
32463	These were of very nearly the same
32464	value as the staters principally current
32465	in Greece. The stater of Cyzicus
32466	weighed, probably, about 140 grains ;
32467	that of Athens 132^ ; that of Lampsa-
32468	cus 129; that of Phocaja 127, The
32469	Daric is found, from the specimens
32470	which remain, to weigh 128:^ grains.
32471	(See Hussey's Ancient Weights and
32472	Measures, ch. vii. ; and vide infra,
32473	vii. 28.)
p. 515
32474	Chap. 131, 132. DEMOCEDES IN FAVOUE WITH DARIUS.
32475	517
32476	set up in business, and succeeded the first year in sur-
32477	passing all the best-skilled physicians of the place, not-
32478	withstanding that he was without instruments, and had
32479	with him none of the appliances needful for the practice
32480	of his art. In the second year the state of ^gina
32481	hired his services at the price of a talent ; in the third
32482	the Athenians engaged him at a hundred minse ; and
32483	in the fourth Polycrates at two talents.* So he went
32484	to Samos, and there took up his abode. It was in no
32485	small measure from his success that the Crotoniats
32486	came to be reckoned such good physicians ; for about
32487	this period the physicians of Crotona had the name of
32488	being the best, and those of Cyrene the second best, in
32489	all Greece. The Argives, about the same time, were
32490	thought to be the first musicians in Greece.
32491	132. After Democedes had cured Darius at Susa, he
32492	dwelt there in a large house, and feasted daily at the
32493	king's table, nor did he lack anything that his heart
32494	desired, excepting liberty to return to his country.
32495	By interceding for them with Darius, he saved the lives
32496	of the Egyptian physicians who had had the care of
32497	the king before he came, when they were about to be
32498	impaled, because they had been surpassed by a Greek :
32499	and further, he succeeded in rescuing an Elean sooth-
32500	sayer,^ who had followed the fortunes of Polycrates,
32501	and was lying in utter neglect among his slaves. In
32502	* Herodotus, where he mentions no
32503	standard, must be regarded as intend-
32504	ing the Attic, which was in general
32505	use throughout Greece in his own day.
32506	The salary of Democedes will therefore
32507	be : — 1st year, 60 mince., or 243Z. 15s. ;
32508	2nd year, 100 mince, or 406Z. 5s. ;
32509	3rd year, 120 mince, or 487^. 10s.
32510	Valckenaer thinks that neither Athens
32511	nor ^gina could have afforded such
32512	large sums (note ad loc). But it
32513	must be remembered that Athens was
32514	at this time under the tyranny of
32515	Pisistratus. Perhaps, however, the
32516	descendants of Democedes, from whom
32517	Herodotus, it is likely, received the
32518	tale, magnified the amount, to enhance
32519	the glory of their ancestor. The em-
32520	ployment of state-physicians in Greece
32521	is noticed by Xeuophon (Mem, iv. ii,
32522	§ 5) and Plato (Gorg. pp. 21-4 ; Leg.
32523	iv. p. 193).
32524	' Elis about this time appears to
32525	have furnished soothsayers to all
32526	Greece. The Phocians (viii. 36) had
32527	an Elean soothsayer, named Tellias.
32528	And at Plat£ea the soothsayers on
32529	both sides were of the same nation
32530	(ix, 33, and 37). The gift was here-
32531	ditary in certain families (vide infra,
32532	ix. 33).
p. 516
32533	518 HIS REQUEST TO ATOSSA. Book III.
32534	short there was no one who stood so high as Democedes
32535	in the favour of the king.
32536	133. Moreover, within a little while it happened
32537	that Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, who was mar-
32538	ried to Darius, had a boil form upon her breast,
32539	which, after it burst, began to spread and increase.
32540	Now so long as the sore was of no great size, she hid it
32541	through shame and made no mention of it to any one ;
32542	but when it became worse, she sent at last for Demo-
32543	cedes, and showed it to him. Democedes said that he
32544	would make her well, but she must first promise him
32545	with an oath that if he cured her she would grant him
32546	whatever request he might prefer ; assuring her at the
32547	same time that it should be nothing which she could
32548	blush to hear.
32549	134. On these terms Democedes applied his art, and
32550	soon cured the abscess ; and Atossa, when she had
32551	heard his request, spake thus one night to Darius : —
32552	" It seemeth to me strange, my lord, that, with the
32553	mighty power which is thine, thou sittest idle, and
32554	neither makest any conquest, nor advancest the power
32555	of the Persians. Methinks that one who is so young,
32556	and so richly endowed with wealth, should perform
32557	some noble achievement to prove to the Persians that it
32558	is a man who governs them. Another reason, too,
32559	should urge thee to attempt some enterprise. Not
32560	only does it befit thee to show the Persians that a man
32561	rules them, but for thy own peace thou shouldest waste
32562	their strength in wars lest idleness breed revolt against
32563	thy authority. Now, too, whilst thou art still young,
32564	thou mayest well accomplish some exploit ; for as the
32565	body grows in strength the mind too ripens, and as the
32566	body ages, the mind's powers decay, till at last it
32567	becomes dulled to everything."
32568	So spake Atossa, as Democedes had instructed her.
32569	Darius answered : — " Dear lady, thou hast uttered the
32570	very thoughts that occupy my brain. I am minded to
32571	construct a bridge which shall join our continent with
p. 517
32572	Chap. 133-135. SEA-COASTS OF GREECE EXPLORED. 519
32573	the other, and so carry war into Scythia. Yet a brief
32574	space and all will be accomplished as thou desirest."
32575	But Atossa rejoined : — " Look now, this war with
32576	Scythia were best reserved awhile — for the Scythians
32577	may be conquered at any time. Prithee, lead me thy
32578	host first into Greece. I long to be served by some of
32579	those Lacedaemonian maids of whom I have heard so
32580	much. I want also Argive, and Athenian, and Corin-
32581	thian women. ^ There is now at the court a man who
32582	can tell thee better than any one else in the whole world
32583	whatever thou wouldst know concerning Greece, and
32584	who might serve thee right well as guide : I mean him
32585	who performed the cure on thy foot."
32586	" Dear lady," Darius answered, " since it is thy wish
32587	that we try first the valour of the Greeks, it were best,
32588	methinks, before marching against them, to send some
32589	Persians to spy out the land ; they may go in company
32590	with the man thou mentionest, and when they have
32591	seen and learnt all, they can bring us back a full report.
32592	Then, having a more perfect knowledge of them, I will
32593	begin the war."
32594	135. Darius, having so spoke, put no long distance
32595	between the word and the deed, but as soon as day
32596	broke he summoned to his presence fifteen Persians of
32597	note, and bade them take Democedes for their guide,
32598	and explore the sea-coasts of Greece. Above all, they
32599	were to be sure to bring Democedes back with them,
32600	and not suffer him to run away and escape. After he
32601	had given these orders, Darius sent for Democedes, and
32602	besought him to serve as guide to the Persians, and
32603	when he had shown them the whole of Greece to come
32604	* It has been remarked (Mure's • is ascribed to Darius.) The contra-
32605	Lit, of Greece, voL iv. p. 406) that diction is certainly glaring, and no
32606	this anecdote is at variance with doubt the anecdotes came from dif-
32607	others in Herodotus, which represent
32608	the Persians as profoundly ignorant
32609	of the leading Greek states at a date
32610	long subsequent to the present. (See
32611	below, V. 73, and especially v. 105,
32612	where utter ignorance of the Athenians
32613	ferent sources. That in the text is in
32614	all probability derived from the de-
32615	scendants of Democedes at Crotona,
32616	and thus has some claim to attention.
32617	(See however note * on cb. 138.)
p. 518
32618	520
32619	ESCAPE OF DEMOCEDES.
32620	Book III.
32621	back to Persia. He should take, he said, all the
32622	valuables he possessed as presents to his father and his
32623	brothers, and he should receive on his return a far
32624	more abundant store. Moreover, the king added, he
32625	would give him, as his contribution towards the presents,
32626	a merchant-ship^ laden with all manner of precious
32627	things, which should accompany him on his voyage.
32628	Now I do not believe that Darius, when he made these
32629	promises, had any guile in his heart : Democedes,
32630	however, who suspected that the king spoke to try
32631	him, took care not to snatch at the offers with any
32632	haste ; but said, " he would leave his own goods behind
32633	to enjoy upon his return — the merchant-ship which the
32634	king proposed to grant him to carry gifts to his
32635	brothers, that he would accept at the king's hands."
32636	So when Darius had laid his orders upon Democedes,
32637	he sent him and the Persians awav to the coast.
32638	136. The men went down to Phoenicia, to Sidon, the
32639	Phoenician town, where straightway they fitted out two
32640	triremes and a trading-vessel, which they loaded with
32641	all manner of j^recious merchandise ; and, everything
32642	being now ready, they set sail for Greece. When they
32643	had made the land, they kept along the shore and
32644	examined it, taking notes of all that they saw ;^ and in
32645	' Literally, " a j-ozmcZ-built vessel."
32646	The word yavXos (yavXos) is clearly
32647	of Semitic origin, and connects -with
32648	the Hebrew hhl " volvo," and ^\|Vj
32649	" orhis, sphasra." All manner of round
32650	objects are named from this root : as,
32651	rh}hi " a skull " (comp. Golgotha) ;
32652	rhip " a scroll ;" ]vhi " a mirror ;"
32653	hhi "dung" (of horses); r\^i "a cup,
32654	a bowl." This last word seems to be
32655	the original of the Greek yavXos,
32656	which is used for a bowl or bucket
32657	(infra, vi. 119), as well as for a round-
32658	built vessel. It may be remarked that
32659	the Greek ^Titers use yavXos spe-
32660	cially, if not solely, for a Phoenician
32661	merchant-ship. See below, \'iii. 97,
32662	yavXovs 'Poiv iKTjtovs, And Calli-
32663	machus, KvTrpoOe StSdi'toy fie Karrj-
32664	yayev evBabe yavXos. Epicharmus
32665	(ap. Athen. Deip. vii. p. 320, C),
32666	yavXo'L(Tiv iv ^ o ivikiko'ls. And the
32667	Scholiast (ad Aristoph. Av. 572),
32668	yavXos, ^oivLKiKov. And Hesy-
32669	chius, yavXoi., ra jroifieviKa tov yaXoK-
32670	Tos dyyela, koi tci ^olvlkci (1. ^oiviiciKa)
32671	nXola. (See Bochart's Phaleg. ii. xi.)
32672	^ Larcher renders " ils leverent le
32673	plan," and Lan>re " zeichneten sie
32674	auf." But aTToypdcpeiv never bears
32675	this meaning in Greek ; it is always
32676	" to take notes " or " register." (See
32677	ii. 145, V. 29, vii. 100, and compare
32678	Scott and Liddell in voc.) The map
32679	exhibited _by Aristagoras at Athens
32680	(infra, v. 49) appears to have been
32681	the earliest of which Herodotus had
32682	any knowledge.
p. 519
32683	Chap. 136, 137.
32684	PURSUIT OF DEMOCEDES.
32685	521
32686	this way they explored the greater portion of the
32687	country, and all the most famous regions, until at last
32688	they reached Tarentum in Italy. There Aristophilides,
32689	king of the Tarentines,^ out of kindness to Democedes,
32690	took the rudders off the Median ships, and detained
32691	their crews as spies. Meanwhile Democedes escaped to
32692	Crotona, his native city,^° whereupon Aristophilides
32693	released the Persians from prison, and gave their
32694	rudders hack to them.
32695	137. The Persians now quitted Tarentum, and sailed
32696	to Crotona in pursuit of Democedes ; they found him in
32697	the market-place, where they straightway laid violent
32698	hands on him. Some of the Crotoniats, who greatly
32699	feared the power of the Persians, were willing to give
32700	him up ; but others resisted, held Democedes fast, and
32701	even struck the Persians with their walking-sticks.
32702	They, on their part, kejDt crying out, " Men of Crotona,
32703	beware what you do. It is the king's runaway slave
32704	that you are rescuing. Think you Darius will tamely
32705	submit to such an insult ? Think you, that if you
32706	carry off the man from us, it will hereafter go well with
32707	you ? Will you not rather be the first persons on
32708	whom we shall make war ? Will not your city be the
32709	first we shall seek to lead away captive ?" Thus they
32710	S23ake, but the Crotoniats did not heed them : they
32711	rescued Democedes," and seized also the trading-ship
32712	which the Persians had brought with them from
32713	Phoenicia. Thus robbed, and bereft of their guide, the
32714	® Aristophilides is king OacrtXevc),
32715	not tyrant (rvpai/i/oy), of Tarentum.
32716	As Tarentum was founded from Sparta
32717	(Ephor. Frag. 53 ; Antioch. Frag. 14),
32718	it is probable that it had constitutional
32719	kings from the first.
32720	'" Crotona (the modern town of
32721	Crotone, a bishop's see, and a place
32722	of some trade) was distant about 150
32723	miles along shore from Tarentum
32724	(^Ihranto).
32725	" The reality of this rescue receives
32726	a certain degree of confirmation from
32727	a story told by Athensus (Deipn. xii.
32728	p. 522, A.). It was a custom at
32729	Crotona, he says, for the attendant of
32730	the chief magistrate to wear, on the 7th
32731	of each month, a Persian garment —
32732	the tradition being that this was done
32733	to commemorate the rescue of Demo-
32734	cedes, because the Crotoniats at that
32735	time stripped his dress oft" the Persian
32736	who laid hands upon their fellow-
32737	citizens, and to mark their contempt,
32738	put it on this officer. Mr. Blakesley
32739	inaccurately assigns this story to
32740	Tima^us (not. ad loc).
p. 520
32741	522
32742	PERSIANS RESCUED BY GILLUS,
32743	Book III.
32744	Persians gave up all hojDe of exploring the rest of
32745	Greece, and set sail for Asia. As they were departing,
32746	Democedes sent to them and begged they would inform
32747	Darius that the daughter of Milo was affianced to him
32748	as his bride. For the name of Milo the wrestler was in
32749	high repute with the king/ My belief is, that Demo-
32750	cedes hastened his marriage by the payment of a large
32751	sum of money for the purpose of showing Darius that
32752	he was a man of mark in his own country.
32753	138. The Persians weighed anchor and left Crotona,
32754	but being wrecked on the coast of lapygia,^ were
32755	made slaves by the inhabitants. From this condition
32756	they were rescued by Grillus,^ a banished Tarentine,
32757	who ransomed them at his own cost, and took them
32758	back to Darius. Darius offered to repay this service by
32759	granting Gillus whatever boon he chose to ask ; where-
32760	upon Gillus told the king of his misfortune, and begged
32761	to be restored to his country. Fearing, however, that
32762	he might bring trouble on Greece if a vast armament
32763	were sent to Italy on his account, he added that it
32764	would content him if the Cnidians undertook to obtain
32765	his recall. Now the Cnidians were close friends of the
32766	Tarentines,* which made him think there was no likelier
32767	means of procuring his return. Darius promised, and
32768	performed his part ; for he sent a messenger to Cnidus,
32769	and commanded the Cnidians to restore Gillus. The
32770	Cnidians did as he wished, but found themselves unable
32771	to persuade the Tarentines, and were too weak to
32772	attempt force. Such, then, was the course which this
32773	' Milo is said to have carried oif
32774	the prize for wrestling, six times at
32775	the Olympic, and seven times at the
32776	Pythian, games (Pans. vi. xiv. 2 ;
32777	Aul. Gell. N. Att. sv. 16). On his
32778	great strength, see Athenaius, x. j).
32779	412, E ; and compare Schol. ad The-
32780	ocrit. iv. 6. Mr. Grote remarks with
32781	justice that "gigantic muscular force"
32782	would be appreciated in Persia much
32783	more than intellectual ability (iv. p.
32784	327).
32785	(See Plutarch, vit. Pyrrh.
32786	^ The lapygian promontory (Capo
32787	di Leuca) was always difScult to
32788	double.
32789	§15.)
32790	^ Was this the Gillus, ruler of
32791	Crotona, who ransomed Pythagoras
32792	from Cambyses, according to Apu-
32793	leius ? (Florid, ii. 15, p. 59). Wessel-
32794	ing thinks so (note ad loc).
32795	* Their common Dorian origin may
32796	in some degree account for this.
p. 521
32797	Chap. 138, 139. EXPEDITION AGAINST SAMOS.
32798	523
32799	matter took. These were tlie first Persians who ever
32800	came from Asia to Greece ; ^ and they were sent to spy
32801	out the hind for the reason which I have before men-
32802	tioned.
32803	139. After this, king Darius besieged and took
32804	Samos, which was the first city^ Greek or Barbarian,
32805	that he conquered. The cause of his making war upon
32806	Samos was the following : — At the time when Cambyses,
32807	son of Cyrus, marched against Egypt, vast numbers of
32808	Greeks flocked thither, some, as might have been looked
32809	for, to push their trade ; others, to serve in his army ;
32810	others again, merely to see the land : among these last
32811	was Syloson, son of ^aces, and brother of Polycrates,
32812	at that time an exile from Samos.^ This Syloson,
32813	during his stay in Egypt, met with a singular piece
32814	of good fortune. He happened one day to put on a
32815	scarlet cloak, and thus attired to go into the market-
32816	place at Memphis, when Darius, who was one of Cam-
32817	byses' body-guard, and not at that time a man of any
32818	account,^ saw him, and taking a strong liking to the
32819	* Compare the conclusion of ch. 56.
32820	In the mind of Herodotus this voyage
32821	is of the greatest importance. It is
32822	the first step towards the invasion of
32823	Greece, and so a chief link in the
32824	chain of his history. Whether Darius
32825	attached much importance to it is a
32826	different matter. We must bear in
32827	mind that the details have evidently
32828	come from the descendants of Demo-
32829	cedes, with whom Herodotus would
32830	have been brought into contact in
32831	Magna Gn-Ecia. The whole colouring
32832	of the story, therefore, would be what
32833	Democedes, plainly a vain- glorious
32834	man (ch. 137), chose to make it. I
32835	attach less credit to the details than
32836	Mr. Grote, who accepts not only the
32837	incidents, but much of the colour-
32838	ing (vol. iv. pp. 347-351). Dahl-
32839	mann's remarks appear to me very
32840	sensible : " That after the conclusion
32841	of the Babylonian rebellion," he says,
32842	" Darius should have marched, not
32843	against Greece, but against Scythia,
32844	VOf;. II.
32845	shows perliaps that we must not esti-
32846	mate the influence of the physician
32847	too highly. Everybody wishes to be
32848	thought to have had a share in the
32849	political events of his day" (Life of
32850	Herod, vii. § 4, end).
32851	* Vide supra, ch. 39.
32852	' This could not be true, yet it is a
32853	necessary feature in the story, which
32854	supposes Syloson to have had no in-
32855	terested motive in making Darius the
32856	present. Darius, the Achamienian,
32857	of the blood royal, failing the issue of
32858	Cyrus the Great, heir-presumptive
32859	(as is likely) to the throne, could not
32860	be a mere guardsman in the service
32861	of Cambyses, or a personage of small
32862	account. The whole story of the cloak
32863	is suspicious : it seems to be one of
32864	those amusing pieces of provincial
32865	gossip which were current among the
32866	lively Greeks (compare the dramatic
32867	stories of Phanes, Democedes, &c.),
32868	and which exactly pleased the fancy of
32869	the Halicarnassian. Both from the
32870	2 N
p. 522
32871	524 SYLOSOX AND HIS CLOAK. Book 111.
32872	dress, went up and offered to purchase it. Syloson
32873	perceived how anxious he was, and by a lucky inspi-
32874	ration answered : " There is no price at which I would
32875	sell my cloak, but I will give it thee for nothing, if it
32876	must needs be thine."' Darius thanked him, and ac-
32877	cepted the garment.
32878	140. Poor Syloson felt at the time that he had fooled
32879	away his cloak in a very simple manner ; but after-
32880	wards, when in the course of years Cambyses died, and
32881	the seven Persians rose in revolt ao:ainst the Ma^us,
32882	and Darius was the man chosen out of the seven to
32883	have the kingdom, Syloson learnt that the person to
32884	whom the crown had come was the very man who had
32885	coveted his cloak in Egypt, and to whom he had freely
32886	given it. So he made his way to Susa, and seating
32887	himself at the portal of the royal palace, gave out that
32888	he was a benefactor of the king.® Then the doorkeeper
32889	went and told Darius. Amazed at what he heard, the
32890	king said thus within himself: — " What Greek can
32891	have been my benefactor, or to which of them do I
32892	owe am^thing, so lately as I have got the kingdom ?
32893	Scarcely a man of them all has been here, not more
32894	than one or two certainly, since I came to the throne.
32895	Nor do I remember that I am in the debt of any
32896	Greek. However, bring him in, and let me hear what
32897	he means by his boast." So the doorkeeper ushered
32898	Syloson into the presence, and the interpreters asked
32899	him who he was, and what he had done that he should
32900	call himself a benefactor of the king. Then Syloson
32901	told the whole story of the cloak, and said that it was
32902	he who had made Darius the present. Hereupon
32903	Behistun Inscription and from tlie pre- ; of so good an opportixnity of destroy-
32904	vious narrative of Herodotus (supra, ' ing the quasi-independence of Samos,
32905	cb. 70), it may be gathered that
32906	Darius was never in Egypt at all, but
32907	remained at home when Cambyses
32908	made bis expedition. Syloson was a
32909	refugee at his court, as Demaratus
32910	which bad long been galling to the
32911	Persians (v. s. nb. 120).
32912	® The king's benefactors (Oj-osan^cp)
32913	were a body of persons whose names
32914	were formally enregistered in the royal
32915	was afterwards (vii. 3) ; and obtained 1 archives (vide infra, viii. 85). Syloson
32916	his request, becaiise Darius was glad makes a claim to be put on this list.
p. 523
32917	Chap. 14i)-142. PROCEEDINGS OF M.EAXDR1US. 525
32918	Darius exclaimed, " Oh ! thou most generous of men,
32919	art tliou indeed he who, when I had no power at all,
32920	gavest me something, albeit little ? Truly the favour
32921	is as great as a very grand present would be nowadays.
32922	I will therefore give thee in return gold and silver
32923	Avithout stint, that thou mayst never repent of having
32924	rendered a service to Darius, son of Hystaspes." " Give
32925	me not, 0 king," replied Syloson, " either silver or
32926	gold, but recover me Samos, my native land, and let
32927	that be thy gift to me. It belongs now to a slave of
32928	ours, who, when Orcetes put my brother Polycrates to
32929	death, became its master. Give me Samos, I beg ; but
32930	give it unharmed, with no bloodshed — no leading into
32931	captivity."
32932	141. When he heard this, Darius sent off an army,
32933	under Otanes, one of the seven, with orders to accom-
32934	plish all that Syloson had desired. And Otanes Avent
32935	down to the coast and made ready to cross over.
32936	142. The government of Samos was held at this time
32937	by Ma^andrius, son of Maeandrius,^ whom Polycrates
32938	had appointed as his deputy. This person conceived
32939	the wish to act like the justest of men, but it was not
32940	allowed him to do so. On receiving tidings of the
32941	death of Polycrates, he forthwith raised an altar to
32942	Jove the Protector of Freedom, and assigned it the
32943	piece of ground which may still be seen in the suburb.
32944	This done, he assembled all the citizens, and spoke to
32945	thera as follows : —
32946	" Ye know, friends, that the sceptre of Polycrates,
32947	and all his power, has passed into my hands, and if I
32948	choose I may rule over you. But what I condemn in
32949	another I will, if I may, avoid myself. I never ap-
32950	proved the ambition of Polycrates to lord it over men
32951	as good as himself, nor looked with favour on any of
32952	those who have done the like. Now therefore, since
32953	he has fulfilled his destiny, I lay down my office, and
32954	Vide supra, ch. 123.
32955	2 N- 2
p. 524
32956	526 HE SUBMITS TO THE PERSIANS. Book III.
32957	proclaim equal rights. All that I claim in return is
32958	six talents from the treasures of Polycrates, and the
32959	priesthood of Jove the Protector of Freedom, for myself
32960	and mv descendants for ever. Allow me this, as the
32961	man by whom his temple has been built, and by
32962	whom ye yourselves are now restored to liberty." As
32963	soon as Mteandrius had ended, one of the Samians
32964	rose up and said, " As if thou wert fit to rule us,
32965	base-born " and rascal as thou art ! Think rather of
32966	accounting for the monies which thou hast fingered."
32967	143. The man who thus spoke was a certain Telesar-
32968	chus, one of the leading citizens. Mseandrius, therefore,
32969	feeling sure that if he laid down the sovereign j^ower
32970	some one else would become tyrant in his room, gave
32971	up the thought of relinquishing it. Withdrawing to
32972	the citadel, he sent for the chief men one by one,
32973	under pretence of showing them his accounts, and as
32974	fast as they came arrested them and put them in irons.
32975	So these men were bound ; and Masandrius within a
32976	short time fell sick : whereupon Lycaretus," one of his
32977	brothers, thinking that he was going to die, and wish-
32978	ing to make his own accession to the throne the easier,
32979	slew all the prisoners. It seemed that the Samians did
32980	not choose to be a free people.
32981	144. When the Persians whose business it was to
32982	restore Svloson reached Samos, not a man was found
32983	to lift up his hand against them. Mgeandrius and his
32984	partisans expressed themselves willing to quit the island
32985	upon certain terms, and these terms were agreed to by
32986	Otanes. After the treaty was made, the most distin-
32987	guished of the Persians had their thrones^ brought, and
32988	seated themselves over against the citadel.
32989	'" jSfeandrius had been the secre-
32990	tary (ypaiJ.fiaTL(TTi)s) of Polycrates (v. s
32991	ch. 123), which would indicate a j
32992	humble origin.
32993	" For the ultimate fate of Lyca-
32994	retus, see below, Book v. ch. 27.
32995	' For a representation of the Persian
32996	throne, see note on Book vii. ch, 15.
32997	Darius is mentioned as sitting upon a
32998	throne at the siege of Babylon (infra,
32999	ch. 155), and Xerxes at Therraopylfe
33000	(vii. 211, ad fin.) and Salaniis (viii.
33001	90). So Sennacherib is represented ^
33002	in the Assyrian sculptures. (Layard's I
33003	Nin. and Babylon, p. 150.)
p. 525
33004	Chap. 143-146. THE MAD CHARILAUS. ; 527
33005	145. Now the king Mseandrius had a Hghtheaded
33006	brother — Charilaiis by name — whom for some offence
33007	or other he had shut up in prison : this man heard
33008	what was going on, and peering through his bars, saAV
33009	the Persians sitting peacefully upon their seats, where-
33010	upon he exclaimed aloud, and said he must speak with
33011	Mseandrius. When this was reported to him, Maean-
33012	drius gave orders that Charilaiis should be released
33013	from prison and brought into his presence. No sooner
33014	did he arrive than he began reviling and abusing his
33015	brother, and strove to persuade him to attack the Per-
33016	sians. " Thou meanest-spirited of men," he said, " thou
33017	canst keep me, thy brother, chained in a dungeon,
33018	notwithstanding that I have done nothing worthy of
33019	bonds ; but when the Persians come and drive thee
33020	forth a houseless wanderer from thy native land, thou
33021	lookest on, and hast not the heart to ' seek revenge,
33022	though they might so easily be subdued. If thou, how-
33023	ever, art afraid, lend me thy soldiers, and I will make
33024	them pay dearly for their coming here. I engage too
33025	to send thee first safe out of the island."
33026	146. So spake Charilaiis, and Mgeandrius gave con-
33027	sent ; not (I believe) that he was so void of sense as to
33028	imagine that his own forces could overcome those of
33029	the king, but because he was jealous of Syloson, and
33030	did not wish him to get so quietly an unharmed city.
33031	He desired therefore to rouse the anger of the Persians
33032	against Samos, that so he might deliver it up to Syloson
33033	with its power at the lowest possible ebb ; for he knew
33034	well that if the Persians met with a disaster they would
33035	be furious against the Samians, while he himself felt
33036	secure of a retreat at any time that he liked, since he
33037	had a secret passage underground^ leading from the
33038	citadel to the sea. Maeandrius accordingly took ship
33039	and sailed away from Samos ; and Charilaiis, having
33040	* That the art of tunnelling Avas j remains which have been found in tlie
33041	known at Sanios is evident from what \| island. (See note ^ on ch. 60.)
33042	is said above (ch. 60), and from the i
p. 526
33043	528 FLIGHT OF M.EANDRIUS TO SPARTA. Book III.
33044	armed all the mercenaries, threw open the gates, and
33045	fell upon the Persians, who looked for nothing less,
33046	since they supposed that the whole matter had heen
33047	arranged by treaty. At the first onslaught therefore
33048	all the Persians of most note, men who were in the
33049	habit of using litters,^ were slain by the mercenaries ;
33050	the rest of the army, however, came to the rescue,
33051	defeated the mercenaries, and drove them back into
33052	the citadel.
33053	147. Then Otanes, the general, when he saw the
33054	great calamity which had befallen the Persians, made
33055	up his mind to forget the orders which Darius had given
33056	him, " not to kill or enslave a single Samian, but to
33057	deliver up the island unharmed to Syloson," and gave
33058	the word to his army that they should slay the Samians,
33059	both men and boys, wherever they could find them.
33060	Upon this some of his troops laid siege to the citadel,
33061	while others began the massacre, killing all they met,
33062	some outside, some inside the temples.
33063	148. Mfeandrius fled from Samos to Lacedcemon,* and
33064	conveyed thither all the riches which he had brought
33065	away from the island, after which he acted as follows.
33066	Having placed upon his board all the gold and silver
33067	vessels that he had, and bade his servants employ
33068	themselves in cleaning them, he himself went and
33069	entered into conversation with Cleomenes, son of
33070	Anaxandrides, king of Sparta, and as they talked
33071	brought him along to his house. There Cleomenes, see-
33072	ing the plate, was filled with wonder and astonishment ;
33073	^ This seems to me the best ex- (f)6poi — comp. Athen. Deipn. xii. p.
33074	jilanation of the expression rovs 8l- 514, A.), but this appears to be a
33075	(jypocpopevfievovs. The reference is later sense.
33076	not to the seats on which they were ^ As the Samian exiles a little
33077	sitting (which are called Opovoi, not earlier (ch. 45), so MiTandrius now
33078	8i(f)po(.), but to the jMlanquins in seeks aid from Sparta, the onhj Greek
33079	which they were ordinarily carried, state that was thought likely to imder-
33080	(See the Etymolog. Magn. and com- take such an expedition. Croesus
33081	pare Hesychius and Suidas ad too.) before (i. (31)), and Aristagoras after-
33082	^Ir. P>lakesley regards the 8i<f)pos as a ! wards (v. 38), followed the same
33083	footstool, and understands rovs 8i- . course. It was not until refused by
33084	(ppo<pop(vpevovs as those who were 1 Sparta that even the latter applied to
33085	attended bj' footstool-bearers' (8i(f)po- ' Athens.
p. 527
33086	Chai'. 147-150.
33087	SAMOS NETTED.
33088	529
33089	whereon the other begged that he would carry home
33090	Avith him any of the vessels that he liked. Mseandrius
33091	said this two or three times ; but Cleomenes here dis-
33092	played surpassing honesty.^ He refused the gift, and
33093	thinking that if Ma^andrius made the same offers to
33094	others he would get the aid he sought, the Spartan
33095	king went straight to the ephors and told them " it
33096	would be best for Sparta that the Samian stranger
33097	should be sent away from the Peloponnese ; for other-
33098	wise he might perchance persuade himself or some
33099	other Spartan to be base." The ephors took his advice,
33100	and let Mseandrius know by a herald that he must
33101	leave the city.
33102	149. Meanwhile the Persians netted^ Samos, and
33103	delivered it up to Syloson, strij^ped of all its men.
33104	After some time, however, this same general Otanes
33105	was induced to repeople it by a dream which he had,
33106	and a loathsome disease that seized on him.
33107	150. After the armament of Otanes had set sail for
33108	Samos, the Babylonians revolted,^ having made every
33109	* It was rarely that the Spartan
33110	kings, or indeed their other leaders,
33111	could resist a bribe. Cleomenes him-
33112	self almost yielded (infra, v. 51).
33113	Leotychides was bribed (vi. 72).
33114	Pausanias was corrupted by offers
33115	from the Persians (Thucyd. i. 129).
33116	Eurybiades was bribed by Themis-
33117	tocles (infra, viii. 5) ; Plistoanax and
33118	Cleandrides by Pericles (Thucyd. ii.
33119	21, Plut. Pericl. c. 22) ; Astyochus
33120	by Tissaphernes (Thucyd. viii. 50).
33121	Pausanias returned home readily w-hen
33122	summoned, because he expected to
33123	secure his acquittal by bribery (ib. i.
33124	131). (jylippus was accused of em-
33125	bezzlement (Plut. Lysandr. c. 16).
33126	The difficulties which the Lycurgean
33127	regulations threw in the way of amass-
33128	ing treasure seem to have whetted the
33129	appetite for gain, and to have made
33130	the Spartans more venal than the other
33131	Greeks. (Cf. Arist. Pol. ii. 6, pp.
33132	57-8, ed. Tauch.)
33133	* For the description of this process
33134	see below, Book vi. cli. 31. Strabo
33135	(xiv. p. 915) ascribes the depopula-
33136	tion of Samos to the harshness of
33137	Syloson's government ; and quotes in
33138	illustration the proverb, cktjti 2vXo-
33139	(TotvTos €vpv)(a)piri. But this ])ioverb
33140	is quite compatible with the account
33141	of Herodotus,
33142	Samos does not appear to have suf-
33143	fered very greatly by these transac-
33144	tions, since in the Ionian revolt, not
33145	twenty years afterwards, she was able
33146	to furnish sixty ships (vi. 8). The
33147	severities exercised by the Persians
33148	are probably exaggerated.
33149	' It has been already mentioned
33150	that Babylon revolted twice from
33151	Darius, once in the first, and a second
33152	time in the fourth year of his reign.
33153	It cannot be determined which of these
33154	two revolts Herodotus intended to
33155	describe. Of the former, which was
33156	quelled by Darius in person, the de-
33157	tails are given in the Behistun In-
33158	scription (Col. i. par. 16-19, Col. ii.
33159	par. 1). The latter is briefly described
33160	in Col. iii. par. 13, 14. Neither of
33161	these two accounts agrees in any point
33162	with the narrative of Herodotus.
p. 528
33163	530 BABYLON BESIEGED BY DARIUS. Book III.
33164	preparation for defence. During all tlie time that the
33165	Magus was king, and while the seven were conspiring,
33166	they had profited by the troubles, and had made them-
33167	selves ready against a siege. And it happened some-
33168	how or other that no one perceived what they were
33169	doing. At last when the time came for rebelling
33170	openly, they did as follows : — having first set apart
33171	their mothers, each man chose besides out of his whole
33172	household one woman, whomsoever he pleased ; these
33173	alone were allowed to live, while all the rest were
33174	brought to one place and strangled. The women
33175	chosen were kept to make bread for the men f the
33176	others were strangled that they might not consume
33177	the stores.
33178	151. When tidings reached Darius of what had hap-
33179	pened, he drew together all his power, and began the
33180	Avar by marching straight upon Babylon, and laying
33181	siege to the place. The Babylonians, however, cared
33182	not a whit for his siege. ^ Mounting upon the battle-
33183	ments that crowned their walls, they insulted and jeered
33184	at Darius and his mighty host. One even shouted to
33185	them and said, " Why sit ye there, Persians ? why do
33186	ye not go back to your homes ? Till mules foal ye will
33187	not take our city." This was said by a Babylonian
33188	who thought that a mule would never foal.
33189	152. Now when a year and seven months had passed,
33190	Darius and his army were quite wearied out, finding
33191	that they could not anyhow take the city. All strata-
33192	gems and all arts had been used, and yet the king
33193	Ctesias (Exc. Pers. § 22) asserted \| (Exp. Alex. vii. 17), and Plutarch
33194	that the details given by Herodotus
33195	belonged, not to any siege under
33196	Darius, but to one which took place
33197	in the reign of Xerxes. Zopyrus,
33198	according to him, was governor of
33199	Babylon at the time, and was killed
33200	by the rebels. It was MegabyzAis,
33201	his son, who, to avenge his father,
33202	mutilated himself. Traces of this
33203	siege of Babylon by Xerxes, and the
33204	severities consequent upon it, appear
33205	in Herodotus (i. 183, end), Arrian
33206	(Apophthegm, p. 173, C).
33207	^ Compare Thucyd. ii. 78. Mr.
33208	Blakesley well remarks on the large
33209	place which bread-making would oc-
33210	cupy in the duties of the ancient
33211	domestic. The "bread-maker" had
33212	not merely to mix and bake the bread,
33213	but to grind the flour. (Cf. Exodus
33214	xi. 5 ; Matt. xxiv. 41 ; Horn. Od. xx.
33215	105-111, &c.)
33216	^ Compare their confidence when
33217	besieged bj- Cyrus (supra, i. 190).
p. 529
33218	Chap. 151-154. ZOPYRUS' PROJECT. ' 531
33219	could not prevail — not even when he tried the means
33220	by which Cyrus uiade himself master of the place.
33221	The Babylonians were ever upon the watch, and he
33222	found no way of conquering them.
33223	] 53. At last, in the twentieth month, a marvellous
33224	thing happened to Zopyrus, son of the Megabyzus who
33225	was among the seven men that overthrew the Magus.
33226	One of his sumpter-mules gave birth to a foal.^" Zopy-
33227	rus, when they told him, not thinking that it could be
33228	true, went and saw the colt with his own eyes ; after
33229	which he commanded his servants to tell no one what
33230	had come to pass, while he himself pondered the matter.
33231	Callina: to mind then the words of the Babylonian at
33232	the beginning of the siege, " Till mules foal ye shall
33233	not take our city " — he thought, as he reflected on this
33234	speech, that Babylon might now be taken. For it
33235	seemed to him that there was a divine providence in
33236	the man having used the phrase, and then his mule
33237	having foaled.
33238	154. As soon therefore as he felt within himself that
33239	Babylon was fated to be taken, he went to Darius and
33240	asked him if he set a very high value on its conquest.
33241	"When he found that Darius did indeed value it highly,
33242	he considered further with himself how he might make
33243	the deed his own, and be the man to take Babylon.
33244	Noble exploits in Persia are ever highly honoured and
33245	bring their authors to greatness. He therefore reviewed
33246	all ways of bringing the city under, but found none hy
33247	which he could hope to prevail, unless he maimed him-
33248	self and then went over to the enemy. To do this
33249	seeming to him a light matter, he mutilated himself in
33250	a way that was utterly without remedy. For he cut off
33251	his own nose and ears, and then, clipping his hair close
33252	and flogging himself with a scourge, he came in this
33253	plight before Darius.
33254	'•* Ctesias appears to bare denied
33255	this part of the story altogether (Exc.
33256	Pers. 1. s. c). On the possibility of
33257	the occiirrence, see Arist. Hist. An. vi.
33258	24 ; Plin. H. N. viii. 44 ; and compare
33259	Beckmann ad Arist. Ausc.Mirab. c. 70.
p. 530
33260	532 HIS SELF-MUTILATION. * Book IIL
33261	155. Wrath stirred within the king at the sight of a
33262	man of his lofty rank in such a condition ; leaping
33263	down from his throne, he exclaimed aloud, and asked
33264	Zopyrus who it was that had disfigured him, and what
33265	he had done to be so treated. Zopyrus answered,
33266	" There is not a man in the world, but thou, oh ! king,
33267	that could reduce me to such a plight — no stranger's
33268	hands have wrought this work on me but my own
33269	only. I maimed myself because I could not endure
33270	that the Assyrians should laugh at the Persians."
33271	" Wretched man," said Darius, " thou coverest the
33272	foulest deed with the fairest possible name, when thou
33273	sayest thy maiming is to help our siege forward.
33274	How will thy disfigurement, thou simpleton, induce the
33275	enemy to yield one day the sooner ? Surely thou hadst
33276	gone out of thy mind when thou didst so misuse thy-
33277	self." " Had I told thee," rejoined the other, " what
33278	I was bent on doing, thou wouldest not have suffered
33279	it ; as it is, I kept my own counsel, and so accom-
33280	plished my plans. Xow, therefore, if there be no failure
33281	on thy part, w^e shall take Babylon. I will desert to the
33282	enemy as I am, and when I get into their city I will
33283	tell them that it is by thee I have been thus treated.
33284	I think they will believe my words, and entrust me
33285	with a command of troops. Thou, on thy part, must
33286	wait till the tenth day after I am entered within the
33287	town, and then place near to the gates of Semiramis
33288	a detachment of thy army, troops for whose loss thou
33289	wilt care little, a thousand men. Wait, after that, seven
33290	days, and 230st me another detachment, two thousand
33291	strong, at the Nineveh gates ; then let twenty days
33292	pass, and at the end of that time station near the
33293	Chaldaean gates a body of four thousand. Let neither
33294	these nor the former troops be armed with any weapons
33295	but their swords — those thou mayest leave them. After
33296	the twenty dajs are over, bid thy whole army attack
33297	the city on every side, and put me two bodies of Per-
33298	sians, one at the Belian, the other at the Cissian gates ;
p. 531
33299	Chai'. J 55, 156. DESERTS TO THE BABYLONIANS. 533
33300	for I expect, that, on accouut of my successes, the
33301	Babylonians will entrust everything, even the keys of
33302	their gates,^^ to me. Then it will be for me and my
33303	Persians to do the rest."^
33304	156. Having left these instructions, Zopyrus fled
33305	towards the gates of the town, often looking back, to
33306	give himself the air of a deserter. The men upon the
33307	towers, whose business it was to keep a look-out, observ-
33308	ing him, hastened down, and setting one of the gates
33309	slightly ajar, questioned him who he was, and on what
33310	errand he had come. He replied that he was Zopyrus,
33311	and had deserted to them from the Persians. Then
33312	the doorkeepers, when they heard this, carried him
33313	at once before the Magistrates. Introduced into the
33314	assembly, he began to bewail his misfortunes, telling
33315	them that Darius had maltreated him in the way they
33316	could see, only because he had given advice that the
33317	siege should be raised, since there seemed no hope
33318	of taking the city. " And now," he went on to say,
33319	" my coming to you, Babylonians, will prove the
33320	greatest gain that you could possibly receive, while to
33321	Darius and the Persians it will be the severest loss.
33322	" Properly " bolt-drawers," which (vide supra, oh. 73, dpx6fj.e6a virb
33323	were very like those now used in the ! MijSov av^pbs Mciyov, Ka\ tovtov
33324	East — a straight piece of wood, with ! ara ovk exovros). And the state-
33325	upright pins, corresponding with those
33326	that fall dowii into the holt, and
33327	which are pushed up by this key so
33328	ment of Polysuus (vii. 11, § 8). that
33329	the stratagem was copied from an at-
33330	tempt made by a certain Sacan be-
33331	as to enable the bolt to be drawn yond the Oxus to destroy the army
33332	back. Iron keys were also used at an of Darius, seems to throw the whole
33333	earlv period for smaller fastenings. — narrative into the region of romance.
33334	[G. W.] I For "the story told by Folytenus
33335	' The stratagem of ZoyjTTis has ! is, in its minutest features, identical
33336	small claims to be considered a his- with a certain standard Oriental tale,
33337	toric fact. It seems impossible that applied in different ages, by the Per-
33338	either Zopyrus, who (according to both siau bards and traditionists to Firuz
33339	Herodotus and Ctesias) was for many I and the Hiyathelah, by Abu Pdhan
33340	years satrap of Babylonia, or Mega- to Kanishka and the Indians, and by
33341	byzus his son, who was one of the six j
33342	the historians of Cashmeer to their
33343	great generals of Xerxes' army (infra, famous king, Lalitaditya" (Col. Eaw-
33344	vii. 82), aad afterwards commanded linson. Note to Behist. Inscr. p. xvi.).
33345	the Persians in Egypt (infra, ch. 160), It is curious to find the Latin
33346	could have been the sufferer of such a writers stealing the same tale to
33347	terrible mutilation. For the Orientals ! adorn their own history (Livy, i. 54 ;
33348	will not serve under a mutilated man \| Ovid, Fast. ii. 691, &c.}.
p. 532
33349	534
33350	STRATAGEM PLAYED OUT BY ZOPYRUS. Book III.
33351	Yerily he by wliom I have been so mutilated, shall not
33352	escape unpunished. And truly all the paths of his
33353	counsels are known to me." Thus did Zopyrus speak.
33354	157. The Babylonians, seeing a Persian of such
33355	exalted rank in so grievous a plight, his nose and ears
33356	cut off, his body red with marks of scourging and with
33357	blood, had no suspicion but that he spoke the truth,
33358	and was really come to be their friend and helper.
33359	They were ready, therefore, to grant him anything
33360	that he asked ; and on his suing for a command, they
33361	entrusted to him a body of troops, with the help of
33362	which he proceeded to do as he had arranged with
33363	Darius. On the tenth day after his flight he led out
33364	his detachment, and surrounding the thousand men,
33365	whom Darius according to agreement had sent first, he
33366	fell upon them and slew them all. Then the Baby-
33367	lonians, seeing that his deeds were as brave as his
33368	words, were beyond measure pleased, and set no
33369	bounds to their trust. He waited, however, and when
33370	the next period agreed on had elapsed, again with a
33371	band of j^icked men he sallied forth, and slaughtered
33372	the two thousand. After this second exploit, his praise
33373	was in all mouths. Once more, how^ever, he waited
33374	till the interval appointed had gone by, and then
33375	leading the troops to the place where the four thousand
33376	were, he put them also to the sword. This last victory
33377	gave the finishing stroke to his power, and made him
33378	all in all with the Babylonians : accordingly they com-
33379	mitted to him the command of their whole armv, and
33380	put the kevs of their citv into his hands.
33381	158. Darius now, still keeping to the plan agreed
33382	upon, attacked the walls on every side, whereupon
33383	Zopyrus played out the remainder of his stratagem.
33384	While the Babylonians, crowding to the walls, did
33385	their best to resist the Persian assault, he threw open
33386	the Cissian and the Belian gates,^ and admitted the
33387	* The situation of the gates which
33388	are mentioned in this and a previous
33389	chapter (ch. 155) cannot he exactly
33390	determined, owing to the complete
p. 533
33391	CiiAP. 157-159. SECOND CAPTURE OF BABYLON.
33392	r.Qp;
33393	enemy. Such of the Babylonians as witnessed the
33394	treachery, took refuge in the temple of Jupiter Belus ;
33395	the rest, who did not see it, kept at their posts, till at
33396	last they too learnt that they were betrayed.
33397	159. Thus was Babylon taken for the second time.
33398	Darius, having become master of the place, destroyed
33399	the wall,^ and tore down all the gates ; for Cyrus had
33400	done neither the one nor the other when he took
33401	Babylon.* He then chose out near three thousand ^ of
33402	the leading citizens, and caused them to be crucified,
33403	while he allowed the remainder still to inhabit the city.
33404	Further, wishing to prevent the race of the Babylonians
33405	from becoming extinct, he provided wives for them in
33406	the room of those whom (as I explained before) they
33407	strangled, to save their stores. These he levied from
33408	disappearance" of the ancient wall of
33409	Babylon. (See Essay iv. at the end
33410	of the volume.) No doubt, however,
33411	the Belian and the Cissian gates were
33412	to the S.E., the former probably de-
33413	riving its name from the fact that it
33414	led to Niffer, the city of Jkl-Nimrod.
33415	(See vol. i. Essay x. p. 597.) The
33416	" Ninevite gate " would lie to the
33417	north. That of Semiramis is alto-
33418	gether uncertain.
33419	* It is probable that Darius con-
33420	tented himself with breaking breaches
33421	in the great wall, instead of under-
33422	taking the enormous and useless la-
33423	bour of levelling the immense mounds
33424	which begirt Babylon. The walls
33425	must have been tolerably complete
33426	when Babylon stood a siege against
33427	the forces of Xerxes. Even in the
33428	time of Herodotus, so much was left
33429	that he could speak of the wall as still
33430	encircling the city (Trepidifi, i. 178).
33431	Ctesias saw portions of it. (Diod. Sic.
33432	ii. 7.) See the Essays appended to
33433	Book i. Essay viii. § ^6, note*.
33434	■• Berosus, on the contrary, declared
33435	that the outer walls were entirely de-
33436	stroyed by the orders of Cyrus (aji.
33437	Joseph, c. Apiou. i. 20). Here again we
33438	may understand that breaches were
33439	made, which the inhabitants repaired
33440	when they determined upon revolt.
33441	* Mr. Grote (Hist, of Greece, vol.
33442	iv. p. 311) compares with this the
33443	wholesale executions of revolted Stre-
33444	litzes sanctioned by Peter the Great,
33445	which took place at Moscow in tlie
33446	year 1G98. Two thousand are said to
33447	have been hung round the walls of
33448	the town, and o+herwise killed, on
33449	that occiision. The Inscriptions of
33450	Darius give no indication of his having
33451	ever countenanced a massacre of the
33452	extent here mentioned. Such bloody
33453	measures accord rather with the tem-
33454	per of Xerxes, who, it is evident,
33455	treated the Babylonians with far
33456	greater severity than Darius (supra,
33457	i. 183, and Arrian, Exp. Alex. vii. 17).
33458	That monarch, to judge by the Be-
33459	histun Inscription, contented himself,
33460	on the first occasion of the revolt of
33461	Babylon, with putting to death the
33462	pretender who headed the rebellion
33463	(Beh. Inscr. Col. ii. par. 1, § 5), while
33464	on the second occasion he pimished
33465	with death both the rebel chief and a
33466	certain number, which could not have
33467	been very large, of his principal fol-
33468	lowers (Beh. Inscr. Col. iii. par. 13,
33469	Bahyl. Tr.). The impaling of captives
33470	had been practised at an earlier date
33471	by the Assyrians (Layard's Nineveh
33472	and Babylon, p. 355).
33473	I
p. 534
33474	536
33475	HONOUES GIVEN TO ZOrYRUS.
33476	Book III.
33477	the nations bordering on Babylonia, who were each
33478	required to send so large a number to Babylon, that in
33479	all there were collected no few^er than fifty thousand.
33480	It is from these women that the Babylonians of our
33481	times are sprung.
33482	160. As for Zopyrus, he was considered by Darius
33483	to have surpassed, in the greatness of his achievements,
33484	all other Persians, whether of former or of later times,
33485	except only Cyrus — with whom no Persian ever yet
33486	thought himself worthy to compare. Darius, as the
33487	story goes, would often say " that he had rather
33488	Zopyrus were unmaimed, than be master of twenty
33489	more Baby Ions. "^ And he honoured Zopyrus greatly ;
33490	year by year he presented him with all the gifts which
33491	are held in most esteem among the Persians ; ^ he gave
33492	him likewise the government of Babylon for his life,
33493	free from tribute ; and he also granted him many other
33494	favours. Megabyzus, who held the command in Egypt
33495	against the Athenians and their allies,* was a son of
33496	this Zopyrus. And Zo^Dyrus, who fled from Persia to
33497	Athens,^ w^as a son of this Megabyzus.
33498	* Plutarch tells of this Zopyrus the
33499	story -which Herodotus relates (iv.
33500	143) of Megabazus, the conqueror of
33501	Thrace : that Darius heing asked of
33502	what he would like to have as many
33503	as there were grains in the pome-
33504	granate which he was eating, replied,
33505	"Zopyruses" (Apophthegm, p. 173,
33506	A.).
33507	' Ctesias mentioned as the chief
33508	of these presents a golden hand-mill
33509	(fjLvXrjv xpva-Tjv^, weighing six talents,
33510	and worth somewhat more than 3000/.
33511	This, according to him, was the most
33512	honourable gift that a Persian subject
33513	could receive (Exc. Pers. § 22).
33514	« Cf. Thucyd. i. 109. And Ctesias,
33515	Exc. Pers. 32-3. Megabyzus married
33516	Amytis, daughter of Xerxes, was one
33517	of the six superior generals of the
33518	Persian army in the Greek campaign,
33519	drove the Athenians out of Egypt,
33520	and put down the Egyptian revolt ;
33521	revolted himself against Artaxerxes
33522	for not observing the tei'ms gi-anted
33523	to luarus, was reconciled with him,
33524	and died in Persia at an advanced
33525	age.
33526	^ This is probably the latest event
33527	recorded by Herodotus. It is men-
33528	tioned by Ctesias almost immediately
33529	before the death of Artaxerxes, and
33530	so belongs most likely to the year
33531	B.C. 426 or 425. There are, however,
33532	no means of exactly fixing its date.
33533	Zopyrus led the Athenians against
33534	Caunus, which he hoped to be able to
33535	bring over; but tbe Caunians resisted,
33536	and Zopyrus lost his life in the attempt
33537	(Ctesias, Exc. Pers. § 43).
p. 535
33538	APPENDIX TO BOOK III.
33539	ESSAY I,
33540	ON THE WORSHIP OF VENUS URANIA THROUGHOUT THE EAST.— [G. W.]
33541	1. Alilat. — Mylitta or Alitta, from K-efec?," to bear children." 2. Had different names
33542	in different countries. 3. A Nature-Goddess. 4. The Syrian Goddess. 5. The
33543	Paphian Venus, or Urania, identified with Aatarte and Anaitis. 6. Tanat,
33544	or Anata. 7. Diana of Ephesus. 8. The mother and child. 9, Alitta and
33545	Elissa. 10. Gods of the Khonds. 11. Maut the mother. 12, Juno-Lucina,
33546	Diana, and Astarte. 13. Europa and Cadmus. 14. Semiramis the dove.
33547	15. Derceto or Atargatis. 16. Athara and Athor. 17. Inscription at Caer-
33548	vorran, and names of the Syrian Goddess. 18. Figure of Astarte. 19. Baal,
33549	Moloch, and other deities of Syria. 20. Arcles, Melicertes, or Hercules.
33550	21. Eimmon, and other Syrian deities — Some introduced into Egypt.
33551	Some suppose Alilat to mean simply the " Goddesses ;" but she
33552	is generally thought to be Venus Urania, and the same whose
33553	worship Herodotus tells us (i. 131) was borrowed by the Persians
33554	from the Assyrians and Arabians. In ch. 181, Book i. Herodotus
33555	says, " the Arabians call Venus Alitta, and the Assyrians call
33556	Venus Mylitta ;" and this he confirms in ch. 199. Like tlie
33557	Alitta of the Arabs, Mylitta corresponded to Lucina, who pre-
33558	sided over child-birth. Both these names are Semitic, and are
33559	derived from iveled, tvalada, " to bear children." (Mulatto is from
33560	the past participle of the same verb.) Indeed, Sargon (accord-
33561	ing to M. Oppert, on the Khorsabad bulls) says " Nisroch directs
33562	the marriages of men, and the Queen of the Gods (Mylitta) pre-
33563	sides at their birth : I have inscribed on the great northern gates
33564	the names of Nisroch and Mylitta." She was the same Deity
33565	worshipped in many countries under various denominations; and
33566	nowhere perhaps do we see more clearly how the same one from
33567	some slight variation of attribute or office was made into several
33568	different Deities, and how many may be brought back to the
33569	original one. In reality she represented the Productive Principle,
33570	Nature, or the Earth, as the generative or vivifying principle was
33571	typified by the Sun, She was Astarte in Phoenicia and in other
33572	countries (Cic, Nat. Deor. 3) ; who is even said by Sanconiatho
33573	to have had a cow's head (like Athor, the Venus of Egypt),
33574	whence called Ashteroth-Karnaim or Astaroth-Kornim, i. e. "of
33575	the horns " (Gen. xiv, 5). She was the Venus Urania, said b}-
33576	Pausanias (i, 14) to have been chiefly honoured by the Assyrians.
p. 536
33577	538 IDENTIFICATIONS OF VENUS. Arp. Book ITT.
33578	She was Anaitis in Persia and Armenia, and even in Assyria,
33579	who also answered to Venus; and the Venus of Assyria held' a
33580	child in her arms (see Layard's Nineveh and Babylon, p. 477),
33581	like Athor and Isis in Egypt. She was Ceres, Irnxri-^rto or
33582	3. yrjfx-hTriq, as the Mother Earth, or prolific Nature (see Macrob.
33583	Saturn, i. 26, and note on B. ii. ch. 9). She was the " Queen
33584	of Heaven," the Moon (who in India is also a form of the God
33585	of Nature) ; she was Bhea or Cybele, the Angidistis or Cj'bele
33586	of Phrygia (Strabo, xii. p. 390) ; she answered to the Greek
33587	EileithyiaB, who at first were several Goddesses, as well as to
33588	Juno, Diana, and Lucina, which three had at different times the
33589	same office ; she corresponded to Minerva ; and in Greece to the
33590	original Aphrodite, who became at last the mere personation of
33591	beauty and voluptuousness. In Egypt Isis and Athor and also
33592	Seben (or Seneb) the Goddess of Eileithyia, answer to her in
33593	different capacities ; and a Goddess is found there standing on a
33594	lion, like "Mother Earth," mentioned by Macrobius (Saturn, i.
33595	26 ; see At. Eg. pi. Ixix.), and again on Assyrian monuments ;
33596	both which are probably of similar origin.
33597	4. From the necessity of making a distinction between her cha-
33598	racters in the same country, she was called Venus-Urania, who
33599	was the great Syrian Goddess. Berosus says Anaitis was first
33600	introduced into Persia, into Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and Da-
33601	mascus about the time of Artaxerxes II,, the son of Darius ; but
33602	she was doubtless known long before in the latter city. (See notes
33603	5. on B. iii. chs. 131 and 70.) The temple of the Paphian Venus
33604	or Venus-Urania is represented on the coins of Sardis, identi-
33605	fying Astarte and Anaitis. Strabo mentions Anaitis (xi. p. 352 ;
33606	XV. p. 594) with Omanus, as Persian Deities, as Herodotus does
33607	Venus-Urania. In Egypt even Anaitis was worshipped at an
33608	early time as Anat or Anta, the Goddess of War, armed with a
33609	spear and shield, and raising a pole-axe in the act of striking.
33610	(See At. Eg. pi. Ixx. pt. i.) She appears to have been a foreign
33611	Goddess adopted by the Egyptians. Neith, the Minerva of
33612	Egypt, who often carries a bow and arrows, may have been
33613	G. related to Anata. The Phoenician Tanith or Tanat, who an-
33614	swered to Artemis (Diana), as shown by an inscription at Athens,
33615	where Abd-Tanat is translated " Artemidorus " in lieu of " slave,"
33616	or "votary, of Tanat," was the same Goddess ; and Plutarch
33617	(ViL Artaxerx.) says " Diana of Ecbatana is there called Anitis."
33618	She was called Tanata by Plutarch, who says she was worshipped
33619	in the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon ; and Berosus, in saying
33620	that Artaxerxes Ochus first introduced the worship of 'A(^polir'/-,i
p. 537
33621	Essay I.
33622	THE CHILD-BEARING GODDESS.
33623	539
33624	Tavat Jos-, proves her to be the Goddess Venus. This identification
33625	of Anata and Venus is further shown by a papyrus (pubHshed by
33626	Champollion), where Venus is said to be " Neith in the East coun-
33627	try, and Sme in the lotus and waters of the West ;" and the Venus
33628	of Sparta and Cythera wore the dress and arms of Minerva.
33629	Tanat or Thanith was also the name of a place in Cyprus,
33630	where Astarte was worshipped. (See the Due de Luyne's Kings
33631	of Citium ; cp. Citium and Chittim, (Kitium and Kitira) the
33632	Hebrew name of Cyprus.) Tanath is thought to be Mylitta,
33633	which agrees with the office of Diana in early times, Diana of
33634	Ephesus had the attributes of prolific Nature, and on some coins
33635	she stands between figures of the Sun and Moon. She is also as
33636	a huntress with the stag (see beloiv). Lanzi thinks Anata the
33637	origin of the Greek Savaror. In a Persian inscription the name
33638	is written Anahid or Anahata, in Babylonian Anakhitu, in Greek
33639	TocvccU ; and it is a curious fact that the planet Venus is still
33640	called in Persian Anahid, js^U). The T is only the feminine
33641	sign prefixed to Anaid.
33642	Mylitta was properly " the mother of the child" and not
33643	Lucina ; but they easily became confounded. And not only
33644	No. 1.
33645	l-'roiii Idaliiini.
33646	No. 2.
33647	Isis and Ilorus of Egypt.
33648	do Mylitta and Alitta signify " the child-bearing " ( deity), but
33649	the idea of a mother-goddess is found in many mythological
33650	systems. In India Devaki nurses her child Crishna, Avho is an
33651	Avatar, or incarnation, of Vishnoo ; and who, like his mother
33652	VOL. II. 2 o
p. 538
33653	540 DEITIES ABSTEAGT NOTIONS. App. Book III.
33654	and some other Deities, lias a gloiy of rays round his head. (See
33655	Kreuzer, Rel. de I'Antiq. par Guigniaut, pi. xiii. ; and Sir W.
33656	Jones, vol. i. p. 266.) The mother and child are also found
33657	among the idols of Mexico. Even Juno nursed Hercules (see
33658	Winckelmann, Mon. Ined. No. xiv.), and several small statuettes
33659	have been discovered at Idalium in Cyprus, where, as at Paphos,
33660	Venus was particularly worshipped, which represent a Goddess
33661	nursing an infant, bearing a marked resemblance to the Egyptian
33662	Isis with Horus. From the same origin was the Greek fable of
33663	Venus and Cupid. On the Etrusciin mirrors is another figure,
33664	having a glory of rays on her head, holding a dead child, said to
33665	represent Aurora with Memnon.
33666	9' Alitta occurs in the Carthaginian name Elissa, given to Dido,
33667	whose story was perhaps derived from, and connected with, the
33668	introduction of the worship of Venus into Italy, where, as in
33669	Greece, she rose from the sea ; and Astarte, the Phoenician
33670	Venus, was one of the Deities of Etruria, Some have thought
33671	Elissa to be the name of El ("HXios-), with the feminine termination.
33672	As Mylitta or Alitta was the producing principle, the Deity
33673	in that character was, according to human notions, a female.
33674	The Earth was chosen to represent that principle ; and we even
33675	10. find in the religion of an aboriginal race in India, the Khonds
33676	(according to Capt. Charters Macpherson), that their two great
33677	Deities were Bella or Boora Pennu, the " Sun " or " God of
33678	light," and his wife Tari, " the Earth ;" the latter opposed to
33679	Boora, as evil to good, but still worshipped.
33680	Some shades of difference next led to various subdivisions of
33681	this primary Goddess (as in the case of the primary God), and
33682	she who presided over childbirth was made distinct from the
33683	" mother." But the relationship was still traceable ; and the
33684	Egyptians ascribed the Vulture, the emblem of maternity, to
33685	11. the two Goddesses Maut (" Mother") and Sehen (Lucina). Buto
33686	(Latona) too, being primaeval darkness or " night, the genesis of
33687	all things," had the attributes of Maut. Again, Maut was,
33688	without any child, merely the abstract idea of mother ; while
33689	Isis was represented with the infant Horus, as a direct personi-
33690	fication of the maternal office. All was the result of their
33691	mode of reasoning ; and nothing, as Plutarch says, was set
33692	down by chance. Existence implied and required a begin-
33693	ning, and all living beings a birth. Without therefore really
33694	believing that one Deity was born of another, they made each
33695	part of the general system ; and one Goddess was said to be
33696	born of herself, as another, Khem, the God of Generation, was
p. 539
33697	Essay I.
33698	ASTARTE.
33699	541
33700	styled " the father of his own father," and consequently '*' the
33701	husband of his mother," since production could only be an effect
33702	of the generative principle. Maut was in like manner her
33703	own mother, "proceeding from herself," as was said of Neith
33704	(Minerva) in her legend at Sa'is. These were supposed to be
33705	the necessary operations of the divine power after creation had
33706	begun ; and the abstract ideas, that were embodied and became
33707	Gods, were subjected to the same rules as all other beings which
33708	proceeded or were endowed with life. Such Deities were not
33709	thought to be physical realities, nor could they even always be re-
33710	presented, as in the case of the "mother of herself;" they were
33711	principles and abstract notions, and it was a necessary consequence
33712	that each (like this of maternity, for instance) should be subject to
33713	its own laws ; showing that the Egyptian system was not regu-
33714	lated by, or made to accord with, an after-thought, as some have
33715	supposed, but devised according to a consistent and set theory.
33716	A similar idea is also found in Indian mythology, where 12.
33717	Bhavani, the wife of Mahadeva, or Siva, answers to Juno-.
33718	Lucina, or Diana-Solvizona of the Romans, as well as to Venus-
33719	Urania, who presided over gestation ; and Lucretius very pro-
33720	perly invokes Venus at the beginning of his Hymn on Nature,
33721	where he says, lib. i. v. 5 : —
33722	" Per te quoniam genus omne animantium
33723	Concipitur, visitque exortum lumina solis ;"
33724	andv. 22:~
33725	. . . " Qu£e quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernaK."
33726	(See Sir W. Jones, vol. i. p. 260.) Again, the original identity
33727	of Diana of Ephesus and the most
33728	noted of Goddesses, Venus-Urania, is
33729	shown by the assertion of Demetrius
33730	that "all Asia and the world" wor-
33731	shipped the great Goddess Diana
33732	(Acts xix. 29) ; and Venus being
33733	called " Mylitta by the Assyrians,"
33734	shows the latter to be really the
33735	same as, or a character of, the great
33736	Astarte or Ashtoreth of Syria. Lucian
33737	thinks Astarte was the Moon, which
33738	was one of the characters of this uni-
33739	versal Goddess, and his opinion is con-
33740	firmed by the Assyrian name of the
33741	moon being Ishtar. Even the word iar-np (star) is thought to
33742	2 o 2
33743	No. 3.
33744	Found In Malta.
p. 540
33745	542 THE DOVE, THE FISH GOD, AND ATHOE. App. Book III.
33746	be related to Astarte. Lucian says she was supposed to be
33747	13. Europa, the sister of Cadmus (de Dea Syr.) ; but this is a mis-
33748	conception, except as far as Europe, or the West, was sister to
33749	Kadm, or the East.
33750	Phitarch (de Isid. s. 15) seems to identify Astarte even with
33751	Minerva (see note on ch. 44, B. ii.). The dove was sacred to
33752	her, which she carries on her hand ; and two are often seen as her
33753	emblems ; sometimes on her breast, as in a statue at Citta
33754	Vecchia, in Malta, and on the Roman coins of Paphos, Askalon,
33755	and other places. Even the doves of Dodona appear to be con-
33756	nected with her widely-spread worship (Strabo, vii. p. 227 ;
33757	Herod, ii. 55). Herodotus (i. 105) pronounces the temple of
33758	Venus-Urania at Askalon to be the oldest of this Goddess, who,
33759	like Aphrodite, was related to the sea, and is represented stand-
33760	ing in a boat on the coins of Askalon and Tripolis ; and Pausanias
33761	pretends that the worship went to Askalon from Assyria (i. 14).
33762	The Egyptian Athor (Venus) is also figured on coins of the
33763	Empire with doves near her, unless indeed they are intended for
33764	hawks (see Zoega). The bull was also said to belong to Astarte,
33765	as a type of sovereignty, which accords with her reputed identity
33766	with Europa.
33767	14. Lucian thinks Semiramis was the dove, which the Syrians
33768	abstained from eating, out of respect to her ; as from the
33769	fish, which was sacred to the half-fish, half-woman Goddess
33770	Derceto, her mother (see note on B. ii. ch. 109) ; and Diodorus
33771	(ii. 4 and 20) says she was called Semiramis, the Syrian name
33772	for a dove, from having been fed by doves when abandoned by
33773	Derceto. (Cp. Ovid. Met. iv. 45.) Derceto or Dercetus was the
33774	15. same as Atergatis or Atargatis, the A being omitted in the
33775	" Greek name Derceto," as Pliny calls it (v. 23) ; and Derceto
33776	is said by Lucian and Diodorus to be a woman in the upper
33777	part, who from the thighs downwards terminated in a fish's tail.
33778	This cetaceous monster was the " fabulosa Ceto," said by Pliny
33779	(v. 14) to be worshipped at Joppa. According to Atheuaeus
33780	(Deipn. viii. p. 84e) Atergatis was suffocated in a lake near
33781	Askalon with her son Ichthys, by king Mopsus, and devoured by
33782	fish ; and he relates another reason for fish of gold and silver
33783	being dedicated to the Deity (viii. p. 346d). Jonah signifies
33784	a " dove," and the connexion with the "fish" and Joppa is re-
33785	markable. Atargatis was the same as Athara (Strabo, vi. p. 540.)
33786	She was worshipped at Hierapolis, Bambyce (near Aleppo) or
33787	" Magog of the Syrians " (Plin. v. 23 ; Strabo, xvi. p. 515), and
33788	was called a S}Tian or Assyrian Goddess. It is not impossible
p. 541
33789	Essay I.
33790	MANY NAMES OF ONE GODDESS.
33791	543
33792	that the name Ky9ri/]7i was derived from Athara ; and the island 16.
33793	of Cythera was called after the Venus of the Phcenicians who
33794	colonised it. The resemblance of Athar or Athra, " fire " (in the
33795	Zend), to the beginning of her name, recalls the Babylonian
33796	Adar, " fire," but it is not necessarily connected with Atargatis,
33797	nor with Athor, the Yenus of Egypt ; and Athor claims hers as a
33798	native appellation, being Ei-t-hor, "the abode of Horus," which
33799	shows her to be closely allied to Isis. But still Athor may
33800	have been originally a foreign Deity transferred to Egypt, and the
33801	name Athara may easily have been made to accord with an Egyp-
33802	tian one of similar sound ; which, being thought to connect her
33803	with Isis, obtained for her the emblems of the mother of Horus.
33804	Besides the authority of Lucian (de Dea Syria), who shows that
33805	the Juno of Hierapolis resembled " Minerva, Venus, the Moon,
33806	Rhea, Diana, Nemesis, and the Parcse," we have evidence from
33807	other sources of the various
33808	characters of the same God-
33809	dess; and an inscription, found
33810	at Caervorran (now in the
33811	Museum of Newcastle), thus
33812	identifies the Syrian Goddess
33813	with Cybele, " the mother of
33814	the Gods," with "Ceres,"
33815	and others : " Imminet leoni
33816	Virgo ccelesti situ, spicifera,
33817	justi inventrix, urbium con-
33818	ditrix, ex quis muneribus
33819	nossi contigit Deos. Ergo
33820	eadem mater Divum, Pax,
33821	Virtus, Ceres, Dea Syria,
33822	lance vitam et jura pensitans,
33823	in coelo visum Syria sidus
33824	edidit, Libyse colendum ; inde
33825	cuncti didicimus ; ita intel-
33826	lexit numine inductus tuo
33827	Marcus Csecilius Donatianus,
33828	militaris tribunus in prgefecto,
33829	dono Principis/' Astarte is
33830	identified with Atargatis
33831	. „ No. 4. Figure of Astarte, found in Etruria.
33832	agam, by the mention oi
33833	the latter with the temple' that was in Carnaim (Ashteroth-
33834	1 Called in the Septuagint version the " Atargateion."
p. 542
33835	544.
33836	UOTVERSALITY OF ASTARTE.
33837	App. Book III.
33838	Kornim) or Camion, a strong city of Gilead (see 1 Maccab. v.
33839	26, 43 ; and 2 Mac. xii. 21-26) ; and with the Syrian Goddess,
33840	by Lucian, as well as Xenophon, mentioning the sanctity of fish
33841	and pigeons (or doves) among the Syrians, (cp. Xenoph. Anab. i.)
33842	Macrobius (Saturn, i. 30) says, "to the great God Adad 'the
33843	one' is added the Goddess Atargatis ; these being the Sun and
33844	Harth ; and her statue stands on lions, as the Phrygians repre-
33845	sent the Mother-Goddess Earth." (See below, p. 54-7.) From
33846	this Adad or Hadad is derived the Syrian name of Ben-Hadad
33847	(1 Kings XV. 18). On the Goddess Earth, and the bearded
33848	Apollo (Baal, or the Sun) at Hierapolis, see Macrobius (Saturn.
33849	i. 19). Both the Syrians and Assyrians "considered the dove
33850	a Goddess" (Diodor, ii. 4, 20; Athenag. Legat.); and the fable
33851	of the Egg that fell from heaven into the Euphrates, and was
33852	hatched by two doves, appears to be a variation of that of
33853	Semiramis, and relates also to Astarte.
33854	18, The usual form of Astarte was a Goddess with four wings,
33855	having a pointed cap, and holding a dove on her hand (woodcut
33856	No. 4), Beneath her feet was the peculiar volute ornament
33857	found on Phoenician monuments ; which being sculptured on the
33858	walls of Crendi, in Malta, argues that those singular Druidical-
33859	shaped ruins (the Hagar Keem, " upright stones") are of a people
33860	whose religion bore some relationship to that of Phoenicia ; though
33861	they are not Phoenician, for the Phoenicians would not have made
33862	such rude monuments. Diodorus (v, 12) confirms what we know
33863	from other sources, that Malta " was colonised by the Phoenicians,
33864	on their way to the West, as well as Gaulus (Gozo), which was
33865	first frequented by them," and where similar ruins are found,
33866	and on a grander scale (called the Torre dei Giganti).
33867	Some coins of Malta have a figure of Osiris, "with four similar
33868	wings, on the reverse.
33869	The Great Goddess of the East, Astarte, is found in all the
33870	colonies of the Phoeni-
33871	cians ; in Cyprus, Sar-
33872	dinia, Malta, and Spain ;
33873	and she also occurs
33874	among the deities of the
33875	Etruscans. (See note on
33876	Book vii. ch. 166.) Her
33877	cap is the same as on
33878	many of the small heads
33879	found in Cyprus, (See
33880	Herod, i, 106.) It was sometimes turreted (like that of Cybele)
33881	Xo. 5.
33882	Found at Idalium, in Cyprus.
p. 543
33883	Essay I. BAAL AND MOLOCH. 54-5
33884	as on the coins of Sidon, Ga^a, Aradus, and others, where she is
33885	frequently seen standing on the prow of a boat, being the pro-
33886	tectress of mariners, as well as of sea-ports. In Paphos, as in
33887	Syria, she was worshipped under the form of a conical stone,
33888	instead of a statue, which is figiu-ed on the coins of Cyprus
33889	(Tacit. His. ii. 3) with the area before the temple mentioned by
33890	Pliny. Astarte was even admitted into the Egyptian Pantheon,
33891	and she was " Venus the stranger," mentioned by Herodotus
33892	at Memphis. (See note on Bk. ii. ch. 112.) The name of
33893	Astarte is in Hebrew mnti>y Ashtarth or Astart, or, as we write
33894	it, Ashteroth, Ashtaroth, or Astaroth (Gen. xiv. 5 ; Judg. ii. 13 ;
33895	Deut. i. 4). Ashtaroth (1 Sam. vii. 4) is a plural form, like
33896	Baalim ; and Baalim and Ashtaroth answered to " gods and
33897	goddesses." The Venus of Persia, Anaitis, was worshipped also
33898	in Assyria and Armenia (Strabo, xi. p. 352 ; xii. p. 385 ; xv. p.
33899	504), as some think as early as the time of Cyrus, but more pro-
33900	bably much later. (See above in this note, p. 538.) Macrobius
33901	(Saturn, iii. 7) speaks of a bearded Venus in Cyprus, and says "
33902	she is called by Aristophanes "Aphroditos" (corap. Hesychius
33903	and Serv. on Virg. ^n. ii. v. 632), apparently according with
33904	the notion of Juj^iter being of two sexes, as well as of many
33905	characters, and with the Egyptian notion of a self-producing and
33906	self-engendering deity. (See Orphic Fragm., and Avpendix to
33907	Bk. ii. ch. 3, pp. 289-290.) This union of the two sexes is
33908	found also in Hindoo mythology, and is similarly emblematic of
33909	the generative and productive principles.
33910	There were other deities in Syria (Judg. x. 6) ; as the Great 19.
33911	Baal, Belus, the " Lord," "master" (Hercules, or the sun) ; and
33912	Molech, or Moloch (Melek) the " king," the Milcom " of the
33913	Ammonites," perhaps "the High King," or "their king."
33914	(Amos V. 26 ; 1 Kings xi. 5, 7.) Some have thought Baal and
33915	Bel (Isaiah xlvi. 1) different Gods. Baal and Molech (like
33916	Adonai) were really titles of the god (see note on ch. 82,
33917	Bk. ii.) which are found united in the name of Malach-Belus,
33918	mentioned with Agli-bolus, as a Deity of the country in an
33919	inscription at Palmyra ; and as the former was the Sun, the latter
33920	was the God Moon (Lunus), whose name was derived from agl,
33921	" to rotate." (Cp. the Arabic agl, " a wheel.") Melek is from
33922	the same root as Amlak, " take hold of," "possess," or " rule," and
33923	memlook (p. p.) " ruled," " slave ;" but Amalek (Amlek p'poy), and
33924	Amalekite (Amleki) are not related to Melek, or Moloch, "i^O.:,
33925	There were also Chemosh (Kemosh) of the Moabites (1 Kings
p. 544
33926	546 HERCLE — EEMPHAX. App. Book III.
33927	xi. 7) thought to be the Khem of Egypt ; Nebo " his Lord "
33928	supposed to be Mercury ; Muth or " death " answering to Phito ;
33929	and others noticed in sacred and profane history. Baaltis, or
33930	Dione of Bybkis, mentioned by Sanconiatho, was probably a
33931	female Baal, and a character of Astarte, and the Cypress (still
33932	retained in the East as an ornamental device and as a funereal
33933	tree) was sacred to her as the Persea was to Athor. Baal had
33934	various characters, as Baal-Berith (Judg. viii. 33) of Shechem ;
33935	Baal-Markos, to whom a temple was dedicated near Berytus
33936	(Beiroot), with altars to " Jovi Baal-Markodi, perhaps the same
33937	as Merodach (Jerem. 1. 2) or Merdok (whence Mardokempalus, the
33938	fourth successor of Nabonassar in the Canon of Ptolemy), Pul,
33939	Phul, and Pal, were Baal, or Belus. Baal, as well as HXior, is
33940	connected Avith the Semitic Al "God," and from him Baalbek
33941	(Heliopolis) received its name. Comp. the Welsh Haul " sun,"
33942	the Moeso-Gothic Uil "sun," and the Gothic Ell "fire." The
33943	sun-god Bella, or Boora-Pennu, "god of light of the Khonds also
33944	recalls the Epirotic name Pieli ; though this is perhaps only similar
33945	to the Slavonic bielo " white," to which a Slavonian author pre-
33946	tends Baal to be related. Some derive Baal from Ba, " father,"
33947	and al, " god ;" as Babel (Babylon) was from Bab-el (or Ilu)
33948	"gate of god." Damascius says the Phoenicians and Syrians
33949	call Chronos '^Hx, Br/X, and BoXa^ryv, and Sanconiatho, quoted by
33950	Eusebius, makes IXi/r the same as Chronos. (See note " on Bk. ii.
33951	ch. 44)
33952	20. Among the Syrian gods, Selden (de Diis Syr.) mentions Our-
33953	chol {comp. Our, " light ") the same as Arcles, whence Hercules,
33954	the Etruscan Hercle, or Erkle ; Nonnus makes Hercules the
33955	Babylonian sun ; he was the Phoenician Baal, and the Hercules
33956	of Eg}'pt was also connected with Re. (See note on ch. 43,
33957	Bk. ii., and ch. 8, Bk. iii.) It is singular that Africanus calls
33958	one of the Shepherd-kings Arcles, or Archies ; and Dr. Cum-
33959	berland thinks Certes to be Melicertes, or Melkarthus, the name
33960	of the Hercules of Tyre. (See note on Bk. ii. ch. 104.) Mel-
33961	karthus means "Lord of the city;" and Molech "of the Am-
33962	monites," is probably this name of Hercules ; Kartha " the city"
33963	being omitted. (See note on Bk. ii. ch. 44.)
33964	21. The Syrian god Rimmon (2 Kings v. 18) appears from his
33965	name Rimon, " pomegranate," to be related to the Jupiter of
33966	Mount Casius, whose statue held that fruit in its hand (Achilles
33967	Tatius, iii.) ; and Remphan, whose star the Israelites worshipped
33968	(Acts vii. 43) at the same time with Moloch and Chiun (Amos v.
p. 545
33969	Essay 1. CHEMOSH — KHEM — AMUN. 547
33970	26), is thougtit to be the same as the Egyptian God of War
33971	Ranpo — a foreign deity, who is found in Egypt with a goddess
33972	standing on a lion, apparently also of foreign introduction,
33973	answering to the Phrygian Cybele, or "Mother Earth." (See
33974	At. Eg,, plate 69.) The mention of the star with Remphan (in
33975	Acts) and with Chiun (in Amos) has made some suppose these
33976	to be the same deity ; but the name of the Egyptian goddess
33977	on the lion is Chen or Ken ; and it is remarkable that she
33978	occurs on the same stela with Eanpo and Anata (evidently Anaitis)
33979	the Egyptian Bellona. Some think Chiun to be the Chons
33980	(Hercules) of Egypt, and the Saturn of the Syrians. The resem-
33981	blance of Ken to Chiun, Ranpo to Remphan, Anata to Anaitis in
33982	Egypt, are singular ; the appearance of those deities proclaims
33983	a foreigfn origin : and the names of the children of Ammon,
33984	as well as of " Chemosh their god," are too near to the Khem and
33985	Ammon (Amun) of Egypt to be accidental. Some may connect
33986	Seth with the same name in Syria. (Astarte is mentioned in
33987	note ' on Bk. i. ch. 105.) For another view of the Assyrian
33988	Mylitta, see. Sir Henry Rawlinson's "Essay on the Religion of
33989	the Assyrians and Babylonians" in the Appendix to Book I. —
33990	[G. W.]
p. 546
33991	548
33992	MAGIAN EEVOLUTION.
33993	App. Eook Til.
33994	ESSAY II.
33995	ON THE MAGIAN REVOLUTION, AND THE REIGN OF THE
33996	PSEUDO-SMERDIS.
33997	1. Ordinaiy theory on the subject — the revolution a Median outbreak. 2. Proofs
33998	to the contrary — (i.) from the inscriptions — (ii.) from the general tenor of
33999	ancient history. 3. Unsound basis of the theory — the Magi not Medes.
34000	4. The revolution really religious. 5. Proof of this from the inscriptions.
34001	6. Religious ideas connected with the name of Darius.
34002	1. The character of the revolution which placed Gomates^ the
34003	Magian upon the throne of Cyrus has been represented by most
34004	modern writers in a light, which is at once inconsistent with the
34005	recently discovered Persian monuments, and with the view of the
34006	event which the general outline of the history, as presented by the
34007	ancient waiters, would most naturally suggest to us. Heeren,*
34008	Niebuhr,^ and Grote'' unite in regarding the accession of the
34009	Pseud o-Smerdis as a national revolution, whereby the Medes
34010	regained their ancient supremacy over the Persians. This view
34011	rests upon certain incidental expressions in Herodotus,^ which
34012	find an echo in later Greek writers of no weight or authority.®
34013	' I give him the name which he bears
34014	in the native monuments — a trace of
34015	which remains in the Cometes of Trogus
34016	Pompeius (ap. Justin, i. 9), who how-
34017	ever misapplies the appellation, giving
34018	it to the other brother, the Patizeithes
34019	of Herodotus.
34020	2 Asiatic Nations, vol. i. p. 346, E. T.
34021	His words are: " It is usual to consider
34022	this revolution as an attempt of the
34023	Magians to get possession of the sove-
34024	reign authority, because the principal
34025	conspu-ators belonged to that caste ; but
34026	by the express evidence of the most
34027	credible authorities" (he refers in a note
34028	to Plato ( !) and Herodotus), " the con-
34029	spiracy had a higher object, the re-
34030	establishment of the monarchy of the
34031	Medes. The Magians, as we have ob-
34032	served, were a Median race; and it was
34033	natural for the Medes, when the true
34034	stock of Cyrus had ended in Cambyses,
34035	to aim at a resumption of their ancient
34036	sway."
34037	^ Vortrage iiber alte Geschichte, vol.
34038	i. 157. He says: " Es miiss sein, dass
34039	es eine wahre politische Revolution war,
34040	nicht bless in der Dynastie, sondern in
34041	Regiment, wodurch die Herrschaft von
34042	den Persern an die Meder, und unter
34043	diesen wieder an die Mager gekommen
34044	war."
34045	* History of Greece, vol. iv. p. 301.
34046	" Smerdis represents prepondei'ance to
34047	the Medes over the Persians, and com-
34048	parative degradation to the latter. The
34049	Medes and the Magians ai-e in this case
34050	identical: for the Magians, though in-
34051	dispensable in the capacity of priests to
34052	the Persians, were essentially one of the
34053	seven ( !) Median tribes. It thus appears
34054	that though Smerdis ruled as a son of
34055	the great Cyrus, yet he ruled by means
34056	of Medes and Magians, depriving the
34057	Persians of that supreme privilege and
34058	predominance to which they had be-
34059	come accustomed."
34060	* There are three passages where a
34061	Median character is ascribed to the re-
34062	volt by Herodotus, viz., iii. 65, iii. 73,
34063	and iii. 126.
34064	* Especially Plato in the famous
34065	passage of his Laws (iii. 12, p. 695.
34066	p. 99, Tauchn.).
p. 547
34067	Essay IF. USURPATION OF GOMATES. 549
34068	The expressions are, undoubtedly, strong, and it must be con-
34069	fessed that in the mind of Herodotus the idea existed which has
34070	been put so prominently forward by the above-mentioned
34071	writers. Still it is worthy of remark, that even in Herodotus,
34072	the direct narrative does not convey the idea with any distinct-
34073	ness, and it has to be drawn out from notices dropped inciden-
34074	tally. The advocates of the Median theory themselves admit
34075	this, Mr. Grote says : — " When we put together all the inci-
34076	dental notices which he (Herodotus) lets drop, it will be found
34077	that the change of sceptre from Smerdis to Darius was a far
34078	larger political event than his direct narrative would seem to
34079	announce."^ Niebuhr goes yet further, and professes openly to
34080	depart from Herodotus, who represents the change (he says) as
34081	merely one of dynasty, and does not give it its true political
34082	importance, as a transfer of empire from the Persian to the
34083	Median nation.'* Thus it appears that even in Herodotus himself,
34084	the idea that the struggle was one of nationalities, and that
34085	Media triumphed in the person of the Pseudo-Smerdis, is not
34086	consistently maintained or asserted with that clearness and dis-
34087	tinctness which was to have been expected if the usurpation had
34088	really possessed the character attributed to it."
34089	2. That the oppressed nationality of the Medes did not triumph
34090	by the accession of Gomates to the throne, is apparent, first, from
34091	the inscriptions of Darius, and secondly from the general tenor
34092	of ancient history.
34093	(i.) The evidence of the inscriptions is, of necessity, chiefly
34094	negative. Gomates is never said to have been a Mede, nor is
34095	there any mention of the Medes as particularly connected with
34096	the revolution.^ The idea of a national struggle is manifestly
34097	7 Hist, of Greece, 1. s. c.
34098	8 " Nach Herodots Erziihlung miisste
34099	man nun glauben, es ware bloss dies
34100	verandert worden, dass ein Mager unter
34101	dem Namen des Persers an der Spitze
34102	gestanden, und es ware dabei geblieben,
34103	dass die Perser geherrscht batten, nur
34104	unter einem Konige, der ein raedischer
34105	Mager gewesen ware Es muss
34106	aber hier anders gewesen sein." — Vortrage,
34107	1. s. c.
34108	3 If the Medes at this time regained
34109	their supremacy over the Persians, the
34110	alteration of relation should have been
34111	noticed in Book i. eh. 130. Not only is
34112	there no mention of the reign of the
34113	Pseudo-Smerdis in that place, but we
34114	are plainly given to undei'stand that the
34115	subjection of the Medes to the Persians
34116	continued uninterruptedly until the
34117	revolt from Darius, which happened
34118	(we know) in the third year of his
34119	reign. Even in the third Book the
34120	Median character of the revolt is not
34121	put prominently foi-ward. This is what
34122	Mr. Grote, in the passage above quoted,
34123	confesses.
34124	^ Media indeed is mentioned, but it is
34125	only in connexion with Persia and the
34126	other provinces. Col. i. par. 10, § 10:
34127	" Then the lie became abounding in the
34128	land, both in Persia and in Media, and
34129	in the other pi-ovinces." Col. i. par. 11,
34130	§ 7 : " From Cambyses the state went
34131	over to him (Gomates), both Persia and
34132	Media, and the other provinces." Col. i.
p. 548
34133	550 GOMATES NOT A MEDE. App. Book III.
34134	absent from the mind of Darius, who, if he had really wrested
34135	the sovereignty from the Medes, and restored it to the Persians,
34136	would undoubtedly have set forth such an exploit with sufficient
34137	clearness. The national character of the various revolts which
34138	occurred after he ascended the throne, is distinctly stated.
34139	But further, there is some positive evidence that the usurpa-
34140	tion of Gomates was not a Median triumph. For, 1. Gomates
34141	is represented as a native of a region Avhich it is almost certain
34142	was in Persia Proper. " He arose from Pissiachada, the moun-
34143	tain's name Aracadres, from thence."^ Pissiachada, it appears
34144	from another passage,^ was towards the extreme east of Persia,
34145	not far from Parga, the modern Faliraj, which lies between
34146	Shiraz and Kermdn. He was therefore, at least by birth, if not
34147	by descent, a Persian. 2. Persia, not Media, is represented as
34148	taking the most prominent part in the revolt. " The whole
34149	state went over to Gomates," we are told, " both. Persia and
34150	Media, and the other provinces." And again, " Gomates the
34151	Magian dispossessed Cambyses hoth of Persia, and Media, and
34152	the dependent provinces." 8. Equal surprise is expressed that
34153	the Medes did not rise against the usurper, as that the Persians
34154	submitted to him. "There was not a man," says Darius,
34155	" neither Persian, nor Median, nor any one of our family, who
34156	would dispossess that Gomates the Magian of the crown." *
34157	(ii.) The general tenor of ancient histoiy leads to the same
34158	result. 1. The facts related by Herodotus, as distinguished from
34159	his opinion of the national character of the revolution. There is
34160	nothing in the course of events, setting aside the speeches sup-
34161	posed to be made, which would indicate that the Medes have any
34162	particular interest in the struggle. No special favour is shown
34163	to the Medes by the Pseudo-Smerdis ;* there is no transfer of the
34164	seat of empire from Susa to Ecbatana® — no removal of Persian
34165	governors' — no resistance is offered by the Medes to the counter-
34166	par. 12, § 3 : " After Gomates the Magian iii. 67).
34167	had dispossessed Cambyses both of ^ Susa is mentioned as still the ca-
34168	Persia and Media, and the dependent
34169	provinces, he did according to his
34170	desire."
34171	' Behistun Inscription, Col. i. par. 11,
34172	§3.
34173	3 Ibid., Col. iii. par. 7, § 2.
34174	* lb.. Col. i. par. 13, § 2.
34175	^ He exempts from taxation and mili-
34176	tary service for three years, not Media
34177	specially, but the whole empire (Herod.
34178	pital (Herod, iii. 70).
34179	' Oroetes certainly retained his com-
34180	mand dui'ing the Magian usurpation
34181	(Herod, iii. 126). He was a Persian
34182	(av>io u'-offr,;, iii. 120). Hystaspes is re-
34183	presented as continuing to be sati-ap
34184	of Persia (iii. 70). Aryandes, whom
34185	Cambyses had made satrap of Egypt,
34186	remained undisturbed in his office (iv.
34187	166).
p. 549
34188	Essay II. THE MAGI NOT EEALLY MEDES. 551
34189	revolution® — no brand of disgrace set upon the Modes by way of
34190	punishment.^ Everything, as will be shown hereafter, concurs
34191	to indicate that the revolution was social, not national — Magian,
34192	not Median — the ascendancy of a religion, not the revolt of a
34193	people. 2. The authority of other writers of weight, whose tes-
34194	timony is independent of Herodotus. Among these the first
34195	place is due to iEschylus, who wrote wuthin 50 years of the
34196	event (20 years earlier than Herodotus), and whose play of the
34197	Persge indicates very exact acquaintance with the Persian history.^
34198	-<Eschylus, enumerating the sovereign lords of Asia, when he
34199	comes to the Pseudo-Smerdis, says : "The fifth was Mardus, a
34200	disgrace to Ms country/, unworthy occupant of the ancient throne ;"^
34201	an expression which has no meaning, if the Magus was a Mode,
34202	and his usurpation raised his country, Media, from the condition
34203	of a subject to that of a sovereign state, — but which has a very
34204	pregnant meaning if he was a Persian of inferior rank and posi-
34205	tion, who, to effect a religious revolution, established himself on
34206	the throne. To the authority of ^schylus may be added that
34207	of Ctesias, by whom the Magus is never said to have been a
34208	Mede.^ Ctesias here is not (so far as appears) designedly opposing
34209	Herodotus, which makes his testimony the more valuable.
34210	3. It may be observed further, that the whole notion of the
34211	Magian revolution being a transfer of empire from the Persians
34212	to the Modes, both in the mind of Herodotus and in that of the
34213	recent authors who have so prominently put it forward, rests
34214	upon the assumption that the Magi at this time were exclusively
34215	a Median race. "The Magians," says Mr. Grote, "though indis-
34216	pensable in the capacity of priests to the Persians, were essen-
34217	tially one of the seven Median tribes."* And Heeren more
34218	briefly lays it down : — " The Magians, as we have observed,
34219	were a Median race."^ But was this really so ? Is it true that
34220	at any time the Magi were exclusively Median? Herodotus
34221	certamly enumerates the Magi among the six (not seven) tribes
34222	8 The revolt of Media, three years , (Marm. Par. 63, Miiller), would have
34223	afterwards, in conjunction with Armenia
34224	and Assyria (Beh. Ins., Col. ii. pars.
34225	5-13; Herod, i. 130), cannot with any
34226	fairness be connected with the downfal
34227	of the Magus.
34228	5 The success of the conspiracy leads
34229	to a general massacre, not of the Medes,
34230	but of the Magi ; and is commemorated
34231	by an annual festival — the Magophonia,
34232	not Medophonia.
34233	' ^schylus, who fought at Marathon
34234	his information from the prisoners taken
34235	at that battle, who might many of them
34236	have been grown up at the time of
34237	the Magian revolution, thirty-one years
34238	earlier.
34239	TrifiTTTOi &e ^idpSos Tip^€i', alcrxvvri Trdrpo,
34240	BpovoLcri t' ap;^atotcrii'. — -Pers. 780-1.
34241	3 Excerpt. Persic. §§ 10-14.
34242	'* Hist, of Greece, 1. s. c.
34243	* Asiatic Nations, 1. s. c.
34244	I
p. 550
34245	552 EELIGIOUS CHARACTER OF THE REVOLT. App. Book III.
34246	of l^Iedia,^ and does not mention them among the ten tribes of
34247	Persia.'' And this proves no doubt that Magism had been re-
34248	ceived into greater favour in the one country than in the other.
34249	But Magism itself was, as has been already shown," the old
34250	Scythic religion, and was professed wherever there was a Scythic
34251	population, which was certainly the case in Persia as much as in
34252	Media.^ If the success of the Pseudo-Smerdis was a national
34253	triumph at all, it was the triumph of the Scyths over their con-
34254	querors, not of one Arian people over another. But in fact
34255	there was nothing national, scarcely anything even political in
34256	the change, which was a religious revolution, not a revolt or a
34257	transfer of empire.
34258	4. The truth seems to be that the Arians who overran Asia
34259	from the Hindoo Koosh to the shores of the Persian Gulf, were
34260	everywhere but a small element in the pojDulation of the countries
34261	subdued by them ; and thus, although in the first flush of con-
34262	quest they succeeded in imposing their religion, which was
34263	Dualism, upon the vanquished nations, very shortly, in every
34264	country which they occupied, a reaction set in. The religion of
34265	the mass refused to be crushed or stifled, and gradually rose from
34266	its depression and made head against the invading worship.
34267	Such reactions are common whenever sudden conquests are
34268	made, and may be traced in the language and manners, as well
34269	as in the religion of the conquered countries. In some places,
34270	as in Media, the period of struggle was short, and the victors
34271	readily yielded and became the disciples of the vanquished in
34272	religious matters.^ In Persia the case was different. The Achs-
34273	menian monarchs were staunch upholders of their ancestral
34274	creed,^ and showed no favour towards a belief which was that of
34275	the great mass of their subjects. Yet despite the frowns of the
34276	court, Magism made progress. The Arian Persians, a simple and
34277	impressionable people, gradually inclined towards it.^ The Magi
34278	grew in power and influence. At last all seemed ripe for a
34279	^ Herod, i. 101. 7 Ibid. i. 125. sculptures of any representation of
34280	^ See Appendix to Book i. Essay v., sacrificial worship.
34281	" On the Religion of the Ancient Per- ^ This is apparent from the statement
34282	sians." of Darius: ""When Cambyses had gone
34283	9 The inscriptions of Cyrus at Pasar- i to Egypt, then the state became here-
34284	gadfe, as well as those of Darius at tical : then the lie became abounding in
34285	Persepolis and Xakhsh-i-Rustam, have the land, both in Persia and in Media,
34286	a Scythic ti-anscript. and in the other provinces. Aftencards
34287	1 See Appendix to Book i. Essay v., there was a cei'tain man, a Magian,
34288	§ 6, and note ^. named Gomates " (Beh. Ins., Col. i.
34289	' See the Inscriptions passim. And pai's. 10, 11).
34290	note the absence from the Pei"sepolitan j
p. 551
34291	Essay II.
34292	THE MAGOPHONIA.
34293	553
34294	change, and the priests of the old religion, taking advantage of
34295	the prolonged absence of the Great King in Egypt, resolved to
34296	strike the final blow, and to substitute for the existing State
34297	religion, which was Arian Dualism, the old Magian belief and
34298	worship, to which the bulk even of the dominant Persians were
34299	well-disposed. A professor of the Magian religion, himself
34300	(according to all accounts) a Magus, was placed upon the throne
34301	of Cyrus. Perhaps the Magi feared to trust any but a member
34302	of their own body — perhaps they looked further, and designed a
34303	transference of the supreme power from the warrior to the priest
34304	caste of the nation.^ In any case they seem to have surpassed
34305	the limits of discretion, and to have over-reached themselves on
34306	the occasion. The Persians, indifferent, or, it may be, well-
34307	inclined to a religious change, could not tolerate the political
34308	novelty of a Priest-King. As soon as it became known that the
34309	successor of Cambyses was not his brother Smerdis, but a Magus,
34310	the nobles conspired. Darius, the young head of the house of
34311	the Achsemenidae, by right of his birth took the lead. Gomates
34312	was slain, and a general massacre, like that which the Jews were
34313	allowed by Ahasuerus,* struck terror into the Magi and their
34314	adherents. The Arian religion was restored ; the temples were
34315	rebuilt; and the annual festival of the Magophonia was insti-
34316	tuted,^ to deter the Magian priests from ever again repeating
34317	their bold adventure. Magism remained under a cloud, from
34318	which it only gradually emerged, as the Arian faith, which it
34319	had not been able to displace, became corrupted by intermixture
34320	with it.
34321	5. The religious character of the revolution is clearly marked
34322	in the great inscription of Darius. The origin of the troubles is as-
34323	cribed to the fact, that " when Cambyses had proceeded to Egypt,
34324	then the state became wicked. Then the lie became abounding
34325	in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other pro-
34326	vinces." " The God Ormazd," as it is expressed in another
34327	place," "created lies, that they should deceive the people.^-* The
34328	acts recorded of Gomates — and it must be borne in mind that they
34329	■• The Magi, it is probable, were an
34330	actual caste. The pastoral, agricul-
34331	tural, and warrior tribes of Persia, were
34332	not perhaps strictly castes, since all
34333	were soldiers upon occasion, but the
34334	profession of arms was limited to the
34335	warriors.
34336	'=' Esther, eh. ix. Niebuhr makes this
34337	comparison (Vortrage, vol. i. p. 158),
34338	but witliout regarding the narrative in
34339	the book of Esther as historical.
34340	8 Ctesias agrees with Herodotus both
34341	as to the origin and the continuance
34342	of this strange observance (Exc. Pers.
34343	§15).
34344	' Beh. Ins., Col. iv. par. 4.
p. 552
34345	554
34346	RELIGIOUS FAME OF DARIUS.
34347	App. Book III.
34348	are the only acts which Darius records of him — are religious
34349	changes. They are the destruction of temples, and the abolition
34350	of the existing worship, consisting principally, it would appear,
34351	of sacred chantings. The acts of Darius, immediately upon his
34352	accession, are the exact counterpart to these. His first care is to
34353	"rebuild the temples which Gomates had destroyed, and to
34354	restore to the people the sacred chants and worship, of which
34355	Gomates had deprived them.''^ To this zeal he ascribes the pro-
34356	tection which he has received from Ormazd. " For this reason
34357	Ormazd brought help to me, and the other gods which are, be-
34358	cause I was not wicked, nor was I a liar, nor was I a tyrant."^
34359	And he commends his example herein to the imitation of his suc-
34360	cessors on the throne, who are exhorted to " keep themselves
34361	from lies,'' and " destroy utterly the man who may be a liar.'"^
34362	6. And hence we find in general history that Darius enjoys the
34363	reputation of having been a great religious reformer. This is the
34364	true meaning of that oft-repeated statement,^ so violently absurd
34365	in the letter, 'that Darius was contemporary with Zoroaster.
34366	The later Persian religion, after Magism had corrupted it, was
34367	still regarded as the system established by Darius. Hence the
34368	introduction of the name Griistasp into the Zendavesta, and hence
34369	the respect paid even by the modern Zoroastrians to the memory
34370	of the son of Hystaspes. The very efforts which he made against
34371	Magism, or the religion of Zoroaster, have served to connect him
34372	in men's minds with the system which he opposed. As the last
34373	kno^vn reformer of the Persian religion, he was identified in the
34374	popular judgment with the religion such as it eventually became.
34375	Doctrines lonsf associated with the name of Zoroaster came thus
34376	to be regarded as deriving their origin from Darius ; and as the
34377	most convenient mode of reconciling the contending claims of the
34378	two, a synchronism was supposed, and Zoroaster became a pro-
34379	phet under whose inspired advice King Darius reformed and
34380	purified the religion of his people.
34381	8 Beh. Ins., Col. i. par. 14.
34382	9 Ibid., Col. iv. par. 13.
34383	1 Ibid., Col. iv. par. 5.
34384	2 Plin. H. N. XXX. 1 ; Amm. Marcell.
34385	xxiii. 6 ; Agathias, ii. 24.
p. 553
34386	Essay IIF. POLITICAL SYSTEM OF PERSIA. 555
34387	ESSAY III:
34388	ON THE PERSIAN SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNMENT.
34389	1. Uniformity of Oriental Governments. 2. Satrapial system of Persia. 3. Danger
34390	of revolt — safeguards. 4. Power and vrealth of the Satraps. 5. Institution
34391	of Royal Judges. 6. Fixity of the royal revenue. 7. The border Satrap.s.
34392	8. Extra-satrapial dependencies. 9. Satrapies not always geogi-aphically con-
34393	tinuous. 10. Modes by which the subjection of the conquered races was
34394	maintained — (i.) Disarming — (ii.) Transplantation — (iii.) Maintenance of a
34395	standing army. 11. Position and power of the monarch. 12. Privileges of
34396	the Persians. 13. Gradations of i-ank among them.
34397	1. The ancient Persian monarchy, both in its origin and in its
34398	internal administration, closely resembled the modern Persian
34399	and Turkish Governments. Since the fall of the Assyrian and
34400	Babylonian kingdoms, the empires of the East have uniformly
34401	arisen from .the sudden triumph of conquering nomadic hordes
34402	over more settled and civilised communities. A Cyrus, a
34403	Genghis Khan, a Timour, an Othman, a Nadir Shah, has
34404	led the hardy inhabitants of the steppes or of the mountain
34405	tracts, against effete races, long established in softer regions,
34406	and abandoned to sloth and sensuality. Slow conquests, long
34407	struggles of race against race, amalgamations, insensible growth
34408	and development of political systems, to which we are habitu-
34409	ated in the records of the West, are unknown to the countries
34410	lying eastward of the Hellespont. In every case a conqueror
34411	rapidly overruns an enormous tract of territory, inhabited
34412	by many and diverse nations, overpowers their resistance or
34413	receives their submission, and imposes on them a system of
34414	government, rude and inartificial indeed, but sufficient ordinarily
34415	to maintain their subjection, till the time comes when a fresh
34416	irruption and a fresh conqueror repeat the process, which seems
34417	to be the only renovation whereof Oriental realms are capable.
34418	The imposed system itself is in its general features, for the most
34419	part, one and the same. The rapid conquest causes no assimi-
34420	lation. The nations retain their languages, habits, manners,
34421	religion, laws, and sometimes even their native princes. The
34422	empire is thus of necessity broken up into provinces. In each
34423	province a royal officer representing the monarch — a Satrap, a
34424	Khan, or a Pasha — bears absolute sway, responsible to the cro\A n
34425	VOL. II. 2 p
p. 554
34426	556
34427	OFFICE OF SATRAP.
34428	Afp. Book III.
34429	for the tranquillity of his district, and bound io furnish periodi-
34430	cally, or at call, the supplies of men and money, which constitute
34431	the chief value of their conquests to the conquerors. Through
34432	these officers the unity of the whole kingdom is maintained, and
34433	in their connexion with the persons under their charge, and with
34434	the central government the entire character of the system, and
34435	its special aspect in the kingdom imder consideration, may for
34436	the most part be traced.
34437	2. In the Persian empire, as in other Asiatic governments, the
34438	monarch was all in all. Regarded as the absolute proprietor,
34439	not only of the entire territory, but of the persons and proper-
34440	ties of its inhabitants, all power necessarily emanated from him,
34441	and was only exercised by others as his substitutes, and so long
34442	as he chose to delegate to them a portion of his authority. The
34443	satraps were nominated by the king at his pleasure, from any
34444	class of his subjects ;' they held office while the king chose, and
34445	were liable to deprivation or death at any moment, without
34446	other formality than the presentation of the royal firmaii?
34447	Originally they were charged with the civil administration only
34448	of their provinces, their special business being to collect the tri-
34449	bute (a fixed sum, at least from the time of Darius^) from the
34450	inhabitants, and remit it to the treasury. They had besides to
34451	pay the troops maintained in their satrapy, to see to the admi-
34452	nistration of justice, and to exercise a general supervision, alike
34453	over the external safety and the internal tranquillity of the dis-
34454	trict under them.* Their office was distinct from that of the
34455	commanders of the troops, who like them received their appoint-
34456	ment from the monarch, and were answerable for the defence of
34457	the territory from foreign or domestic foes;^ and distinct like-
34458	^ No doubt they were ordinarily
34459	Persians, and Persians of the tribe of
34460	the Pasargadaj; but this was not neces-
34461	sary. The king's favour could make up
34462	for all deficiencies. We may see by the
34463	examples of Daniel under Cyrus (Dan.
34464	■vi. 28), and Mordecai under Xerxes
34465	(Esth. ix. 4), the power and dignity to
34466	which even members of the subject
34467	nations might attain. Compare the cases
34468	of Tabalus, the Lijdian (Herod, i. 153),
34469	and Xenagoras the Halicarnassian Greek
34470	(ibid. ix. 107).
34471	'•^ Difficulties would occur in the exe-
34472	cution of the king's orders, in ancient
34473	as in modern times. Chardin speaks of
34474	several instances of governors in Persia
34475	who maintained themselves in their go-
34476	vernments for a long time against the
34477	will of the Shah, by robbing the mes-
34478	senger of his despatches, or murdering
34479	him (vol. ii. p. 310). And the famous
34480	Ali Pasha is known to have baffled in
34481	this way for several years the designs of
34482	the Porte against him. That such cases
34483	were not unknown in ancient Persia,
34484	we may gather from the history of
34485	Oroetes (Herod, iii. 126).
34486	3 Herod, iii. 89.
34487	* Xen. Cyrop. viu. vi. § 3. Although
34488	the Cyropsedia is a romance, we may
34489	learn from it a good deal concerning
34490	the intei-nal administration of the Per-
34491	sian empire in Xenophon's time.
34492	* These commanders are constantly
34493	distinguished from the satraps by Hero-
34494	dotus. See V. 25, and 123; also i. 162,
34495	iv. 143, vi. 43, &c. Their independence
p. 555
34496	Essay III.
34497	SAFEGUARDS AGAINST REVOLT.
34498	557
34499	wise from that of the commandants of garrisons/ who were
34500	charged with the maintenance of the strongholds. It sometimes
34501	happened that the office of commander of the troops was united
34502	with that of satrap, more especially in the frontier provinces,
34503	where a divided command would have been dangerous." Two
34504	or three distinct satrapies were also occasionally accumulated in
34505	the hands of a single person, who thus became a sort of petty
34506	king, and was tempted to shake off his allegiance. Hence
34507	revolts frequently occurred,^ and long before the time of Alex-
34508	ander, whole provinces had detached themselves from the central
34509	government, and maintained only a nominal dependence.^
34510	3. To guard against this danger, the principal one to which
34511	empires of such a character are exposed, was one of the chief
34512	aims of the Persian political system. With this view, brothers,
34513	or other near kinsmen of the monarch, were usually selected for
34514	the more important satrapies,^ while in other cases, it was sought
34515	to attach the dangerous functionary to the interests of the crown,
34516	by giving him a wife from among the princesses of the royal
34517	house.^ Nor was security expected from this plan without fur-
34518	of the satrap is especially evident in the
34519	liistory of the Ionian insurrection. See
34520	V. 109, 116; vi. 6, &c.
34521	^ The special passage which marks
34522	this distinction is Xen. Cyrop. vrii. vi.
34523	§ 1. Heeren (As. Nat. i. p. 338, note %
34524	E. T.) thinks that it may be traced in
34525	the arraogemeuts made by Cyrus in
34526	Lydia, Tabalus being the commandant
34527	of Sardis, Mazares the leader of the
34528	forces, and Pactyas the satrap or go-
34529	vernor. Certainly in modern Persia it
34530	is the fact, that the commandants of
34531	fortresses are independent both of the
34532	civil governor and the officer in com-
34533	mand of the troops of the province,
34534	and receive their appointment and
34535	orders from the Shah (Chardin, ii.
34536	p. 302).
34537	'^ This was evidently the case with
34538	Tissaphemes and Pharnabazas (Thucyd.
34539	viii.; Xen. Hell, i.-iv.), with Aryandes
34540	(Herod, iv. 166-7), and^vith the younger
34541	Cyi'us (Xen. Anab. i. i. § 2). Latterly
34542	it became almost universal (Arrian,
34543	Exp. Alex. iii. 8; Xen. (Econ. iv. § 11).
34544	* Orcetes was satrap of Phrygia, Ly-
34545	dia, and Ionia, at the time of his revolt
34546	(Herod, iii. 127). Cyrus the younger,
34547	of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia (Xen,
34548	Anab. i. ix. § 7). Tissaphemes after the
34549	death of Cyrus received all his govern-
34550	ments, and held them together with his
34551	own (Xen. Hell. iii. i. § 3).
34552	3 Pontus was certainly in this condi-
34553	tion, likewise Paphlagonia, and most
34554	probably Cappadocia. (See Heeren, ut
34555	suprh, p. 426, and compare his Manual
34556	of Ancient History, p. 294-7.) The
34557	Uxians of the Koordish mountains were
34558	absolutely independent (Arr. Exp. Al.
34559	iii. 17).
34560	1 Hystaspes, of the blood-royal, was
34561	satrap of Persia under Cambyses (Herod,
34562	iii. 70), of Pai-thia under his own sou
34563	Darius (Beh. Inscr., Col. iii. par. 16).
34564	Ai-taphernes, a half-brother of Darius,
34565	was made by him satrap of Lydia
34566	(Herod, v. 25). Achaemenes, a son of
34567	Darius, was made by Xerxes satrap of
34568	Egypt (ib. vii. 7). Masistes, another son
34569	of Darius, was about the same time sa-
34570	trap of Bactria (ib. ix. 113). Pissuthnes,
34571	satrap of Lydia in the early part of the
34572	Peloponnesian war, was most likely a
34573	cousin of Artaxerxes (Thucyd. i. 115,
34574	Herod, vii. 64). Cyrus received his
34575	extensive governments from his father
34576	(Xen. An. i. ix. § 7). Was Tritan-
34577	tseehmes, satrap of Babylon in the time
34578	of Herodotus (i. 192), cousin to Arta-
34579	xerxes? (See Herod, vii. 82, where he
34580	is called the son of Artabanus.)
34581	^ Pharaabazus married a daughter of
34582	Artaxerxes Mnemon (Xen. Hell. v. i.
34583	§ 28). Pausanias, when he aspired to be
34584	satrap of Greece under Xerxes, himself
34585	proposed a similar connexion (Thucyd,
34586	2 p 2
p. 556
34587	558 ROYAL SECRETAEIES AXD COMMISSARIES, App. Book III.
34588	ther safeguards. The powers of the satraps were checked, and
34589	their ambitious longings controlled, in various ways. Some of
34590	these have already come under notice. The independent
34591	authority of the military commanders and of the governors of
34592	fortresses was the most important of all, and made rebellion in
34593	ordinary cases hopeless. It was only where such distinctions had
34594	ceased to be maintained, where for one reason or another the
34595	civil and military administrations had been placed in the same
34596	hands, that a successful revolt could be contemplated. Even,
34597	however^ where this had been done, the monarch's interests were
34598	not left uncared for. The governor of a province, in ancient as
34599	in modem Persia, was attended by a royal Secretary, receiving
34600	his appointment from the Crown, and bound continually to keep
34601	watch upon the saferap, and report his proceedings to the sove-
34602	reign.'^ A practice is also said to have obtained, to which the
34603	jealousy of modern times fails to present a parallel, whereby it
34604	was thought to secure still more completely the obedience of the
34605	provincial governors. Koyal Commissaries were sent year by
34606	year from the court to the several satrapies, to make inquiries
34607	upon the spot, and bring the king back an exact account of their
34608	condition.^ This usage, however, must have been gradually dis-
34609	continued, or have degenerated into a formality.
34610	4. Despite these checks the power of the satraps was at all
34611	times great, and little short of regal. As they represented the
34612	monarch their courts were framed upon the royal model : they
34613	had their palaces,^ surrounded by magnificent parks and hunting
34614	grounds — their numerous trains of eunuchs and attendants, and
34615	their own household troops or body-guard.'' They assessed the
34616	tribute on the several towns and villages within their jurisdiction
34617	at their pleasure, and appointed deputies, called sometimes like
34618	themselves satraps," over cities or districts within their pro\'ince,
34619	i. 128). The commanders of the troops
34620	were perhaps even more often attached
34621	to the monarch in this "way than the
34622	satraps. (Cf. Herod, v. 116, vi. 43, vii.
34623	73; Arrian, i. 16, &c.)
34624	3 See Herod, iii. 128. Chardin, Voyage
34625	en Perse, ii. p. 302: " II y a en chaque
34626	province avec le gouverneur . . . . un
34627	compare (Econom. iv. § 8,
34628	5 BxffiXita. Xen. Auab. i. ii. § 7;
34629	Hell. IV. i. § 15. Compare Cyrop. viii.
34630	vi. §§ 11-13.
34631	6 Cyrop. loc. cit. § 10. The body-
34632	guard of Orcetes consisted of a thousand
34633	Persians (Herod, iii. 127).
34634	See the history of Zenis and Mania
34635	Vakannviez, ou Secretaire, mis de la main ' (Xen. Helleu. iii. i. §§ 10-12). The tri-
34636	du roi, dont Toffice consiste principale- i bute seems to have been raised by a
34637	ment k rendre compte h la cour de tout
34638	ce qui se passe."
34639	■• See Xen. Cyrop. vm. vi. § 16, where
34640	Xenophon expressly states that the
34641	land-tax (Herod, vi. 42), payable partly
34642	in money and partly in kind (Herod, i.
34643	192). Herodotus, in his account of the
34644	satrapies (iii. 90-4), gives only the money
34645	practice continued to his day. And I portion, or rather that part of it which
p. 557
34646	Essay III.
34647	POWER OF THE SATRAP.
34648	559
34649	whose office was regarded as one of great dignity. So long
34650	as they were in favour at court, they ruled their satrapies with
34651	an absolute sway, involving no little tyranny and oppression.
34652	Besides the fixed tribute which each satrap was bound to remit
34653	to the king, and the amount that he had to collect for the pay-
34654	ment of the troops of his province, he might exact for his own
34655	personal expenses and the support of his court, whatever sum he
34656	considered his province able to furnish.® All persons who had
34657	any favour, or even justice to ask, approached him with gifts,^
34658	without which success was not to be looked for ; and hence
34659	enoi-mous fortunes were accumulated.^ The sole limit upon
34660	the rapacity of the satrap was the fear of removal, in case the
34661	voice of complaint became so loud as to reach the ears of the
34662	monarch. Nor did the populations suffer only in purse from the
34663	tyranny of their governors. Instances are found which show that
34664	they were without any security against the grossest affronts and
34665	indignities to their persons.'' Such cases seem certainly to have
34666	been infrequent, and the general condition of the conquered
34667	races umier the Achsemenian kiugs, contrasts favourably with
34668	then- present state under the Turkish and Persian governments.^
34669	5. One cause of this superiority may be found in the fact
34670	already alluded to, that throughout the Persian empire the native
34671	local authorities were for the most part left standing, the satrap
34672	dealing with them, and not directly with the common people.^
34673	went into the royal treasury. The entire
34674	amount drawn from the people was pro-
34675	bably three or four times as much.
34676	* How large this amount in some
34677	cases was is evident from what Hero-
34678	dotus tells us of Tritantsechmes, satrap
34679	of Babylon, whose daily revenue was an
34680	urtaha of silver, or more than 250?. (See
34681	Herod, i. 192, and compare Heeren's
34682	As. Nat. i. p. 410, E. T.) Heeren has
34683	misconceived in one point the positions
34684	occupied respectively by the satrap and
34685	the monarch with regard to the revenue.
34686	He speaks of the satrap as paying over
34687	the balance of what he had collected to
34688	the king, after providing for his own
34689	expenditure (p. 423) ; whereas in point
34690	of fact the payment to the king was a
34691	fixed sum, and the fluctuating balance
34692	was the satrap's.
34693	9 SeeXen. Hell, in. i. § 10, and § 12,
34694	where what is said of Mania sufficiently
34695	indicates the usual practice. (Compare
34696	Anab. i. ix. § 22.)
34697	' Tritantsechmes, besides his war-
34698	horses, owned 800 stallions, and 16,000
34699	mares! His Indian dogs were quar-
34700	tered on four large villages, which he
34701	exempted from any other payment
34702	(Herod, i. 192). Tithraustes, the suc-
34703	cessor of Tissaphernes, in one year dis-
34704	bursed eighty talents (near 20,000/.), to
34705	purchase peace for his province (Xen.
34706	Hell. III. iv. § 26, and v. § 1).
34707	- If even Persians of the highest rank,
34708	such as Spithridates (Xen. Hell. iv. i.
34709	§ 6), were in the provinces liable to
34710	have the honour of a daughter assailed
34711	(Ages. iii. § 3), what regard is likely to
34712	have been paid to the feelings of the
34713	conquered races?
34714	^ The remark of Mr. Grote is just,
34715	that " the empire of the Great King,
34716	while it resembled in its main political
34717	features the Turkish and Persian em-
34718	pires of the present day, apparently did
34719	not reach the same extreme of rapacitj',
34720	corruption, and cruelty in detail" (Hist,
34721	of Greece, iv. p. 315).
34722	"• This was evidently the case with
34723	the Greek towns (Herod, v. 37, vi. 43) ;
34724	and was most likely universal, or nearly
p. 558
34725	560
34726	ROYAL JUDGES.
34727	App. Book III.
34728	Another lay in the comparative purity of the administration of
34729	justice in ancient Persia. The institution of ro?/a? judges, ^. e.
34730	judges deriving their authority directly from the king, involving
34731	as it did the separation of the judicial from the administrative
34732	office,^ tended in this direction ; and a still greater effect was
34733	probably produced by the tremendous punishments mth which
34734	corruption, when proved, was visited.'^ On the whole, it would
34735	seem that while the caprice and cruelty of the kings rendered
34736	the condition of the satraps and other great men as bad as it has
34737	ever been under the worst of the Oriental despotisms," the
34738	oppression of the masses was lighter than at almost any other
34739	period in Eastern history.
34740	6. The levy on the part of the crown of fixed contributions
34741	from the provinces heljDed to protect the commons ; for as the
34742	monarch gained nothing by the rapacity of his officers, but rather
34743	lost, since the provinces became exhausted, it was his interest to
34744	punish greedy, and advance just and good satraps.® The bene-
34745	ficial effect of this provision more than counterbalanced the evil
34746	arising from insecurity of tenure, and from the absence, gene-
34747	rally, of the hereditary principle from offices and employments.^
34748	7. The more remote the satrapy was from the seat of govern-
34749	ment, and the more it had to fear from foreign enemies, the
34750	greater the power of its ruler, and the more nearly he approached
34751	to the condition of an independent sovereign. The satraps of
34752	Asia Minor and of Egypt received and despatched embassies, and
34753	so. Native princes appear in Caria (vii.
34754	98-9), Cyprus (v. 10-i, 113; and Arrian,
34755	ii. 20), Phoenicia (Herod, vii. 98; Arrian,
34756	loc. cit.), Lycia (Herod, vii. 98), Cilicia
34757	(ibid., comp. Xen. Anab. i. ii. § 12),
34758	and Paplilagonia (Xen. Hell. iv. i. § 2).
34759	The general practice of the Persians to
34760	retain them is witnessed by Herodotus
34761	(iii. 15).
34762	* See Herod, iii. 31. The separation
34763	is professedly made in modern Persia
34764	and in Turkey, but it is seldom that the
34765	cadi dares to resist the khan or pasha.
34766	" Cambyses slew Sisamnes on this
34767	account, flayed him from head to foot,
34768	and made his skin a covering for the
34769	judgment-seat (Herod, v. 25). Darius
34770	was on the point of crucifying Sandoces
34771	for the same reason, but spared him on
34772	account of his signal services (ib. vii.
34773	194).
34774	^ The cruelties of Cambyses (Herod,
34775	iii. 35) are ascribed to madness, but they
34776	are not greater than those sanctioned by
34777	Xerxes towards his brother's wife (ib. ix.
34778	110-112), and by Artaxerxes Mnemon
34779	towards those who disputed .with him
34780	the honour of having slain Cyrus (Plut.
34781	Artax. pp. 1862-3).
34782	^ On the other hand, in modem
34783	Persia, where it is the business of the
34784	provincial governors or viziers to send
34785	to the treasury as much revenue as the
34786	province can possibly furnish, the op-
34787	pi'ession is extreme. The monarch is
34788	interested in the exactions of his officers,
34789	and the harshest viziers rarely receive
34790	any adequate punishment. The evils
34791	of this system are seen by the Persians
34792	themselves. (See Chardin, ii. pp. 300
34793	and 308-9.)
34794	9 Exceptions are found, as that of
34795	Otanes (Herod, v. 25), but the rule was
34796	as stated in the text. On the contrary,
34797	in modern Persia, the contrary rule
34798	prevails widely. (Chardin, ii. pp. 301
34799	and 325.)
p. 559
34800	Essay III. CONDITION OF THE BOEDER SATRAPIES.
34801	561
34802	even engaged in foreign wars without communication with the
34803	Court.' Besides their Persian body-guard, they maintained large
34804	bands of mercenaries, chiefly Greeks,^ by whose aid they carried
34805	on their contests with foreign states, or with one another.^ It
34806	was in such provinces too that the practice chiefly obtained of
34807	uniting the military with the civil administration, as well as that
34808	of entrusting to the same hands two or more satrapies. The
34809	temptation to revolt in such cases was great ; for, on the one
34810	hand, the jealousy of the central government was continually
34811	threatening the life or fortune of the too-powerful officer,* while
34812	on the other success might reasonably be anticipated, and in
34813	several instances^ was achieved. The expedient of appointing to
34814	such posts the near relations of the monarch did not always suc-
34815	ceed. More than one pro^'ince detached itself from the empire
34816	under an Achaemenian prince, who probably found his birth and
34817	rank help forward his ambitious projects.^ In other cases the
34818	native princes, whom it was the liberal policy of the conqueror
34819	to uphold, took advantage of their position to re-establish com-
34820	plete or partial independence." When Alexander invaded Asia,
34821	the Persian Empire was by these means considerably reduced
34822	from the limits which it had reached in the days of Darius, or
34823	even of Xerxes.^
34824	1 As Aryandes (Herod, iv. 165-7),
34825	Pissuthnes (Thucyd. i. 115), Tissa-
34826	phernes (Thucyd. viii. 5, &c.), Pharna-
34827	bazus (ib. viii. 6, &c.), Tithraustes
34828	(Xen. Hell. in. v. § 1), &c. In modern
34829	Persia the khans of the frontier pro-
34830	vinces send and receive embassies (Char-
34831	din, ii. p. 311), but under special in-
34832	structions on each occasion from the
34833	court. In ancient Persia the king seems
34834	only to have been consulted in cases of
34835	peculiar importance. (See Herod, v. 31.)
34836	2 The younger Cyrus appears to have
34837	begun this practice (Xen. Anab. i. i.
34838	§ 6). It afterwards prevailed generally
34839	through Asia Minor. (See Arrian, Exp.
34840	Alex, i.-ii. passim.) The 20,000 merce-
34841	naries who fought on the Persian side
34842	at the Granicus seem to have been all
34843	Greeks. (Arrian, i. 14, p. 30. Compare
34844	i. 12, p. 27, and i. 16, pp. 34-5.)
34845	3 Cyrus was for some time at open
34846	war with Tissaphernes. (Xen. Anab. i. i.
34847	Compare Hellen. in. i. § 3.)
34848	'' How narrowly Cyrus escaped, when
34849	accused by Tissaphernes, we know from
34850	Xenophon (Anab. i. i. § 3). Tissaphernes
34851	himself was not so fortunate (Xen. Hell.
34852	III. iv. § 25). Aryandes (Herod, iv. 166)
34853	and Masistes (ib. ix. 113) were both put
34854	to death on suspicion. Oroetes (ib. iii.
34855	128) on something more. Megabates
34856	(Thucyd. i. 129) was deprived of hia
34857	satrapy, for no cause that we can see.
34858	■' As Cappadocia and Pontus. See
34859	the next note.
34860	^ The case of Cyrus shows the good
34861	chance that thei-e was of success in such
34862	a rebellion. In Cappadocia and Pontus,
34863	where branches of the Achaemenian
34864	house are found, it seems probable that
34865	royal satraps founded the dynasties.
34866	^ As Evagoras I. in Cyprus (Diod.
34867	Sic. XV. 2-4 and 8-9), and king Otys in
34868	Paphlagonia (Xen. Hell. iv. i. §§ 3-15).
34869	The Egyptian revolts likewise come
34870	under this head.
34871	^ Heeren (Manual of Ancient History,
34872	p. 110, E. T.) asserts the contrai-y. But
34873	the enumeration by Arrian of the na-
34874	tions which fought at Arbela gives only
34875	twenty names in lieu of the six-and-forty
34876	of Hei'odotus. Alexander's conquests
34877	account for about ten only of those
34878	which are missing. Besides Paphla-
34879	gonia, Pontus, and Sacia (Anian, Exped.
34880	Alex. iii. 8), which were certainly lost
34881	to the empire, there seems to have been
p. 560
34882	562 ETHNICAL CHARACTEE OF SATRAPIES. App. Took III.
34883	8. Besides the satrapies, there existed at all times on the borders
34884	of Persia, a number of countries owning the supremacy of the
34885	Great King, and contributing to the resources of the empire, but
34886	internally independent. Such, under Cambyses, were the Ethi-
34887	opians bordering upon Egypt, the Colchians and their neighbours
34888	towards the Caucasus, and the Arabs of the tract between Egypt
34889	and Palestine.^ A similar condition was accepted by the Mace-
34890	donian kings in the reign of Darius.^ Satrapies sometimes seem
34891	to have reverted to it, making it their first step on the road to
34892	independence. This was the case, towards the close of the mon-
34893	archy, with Sacia and Cappadocia.^ The position of such coun-
34894	tries resembled that of SeiTia, Wallachia, and Moldavia under
34895	Turkey, of Thrace and Armenia under the early C^sars. Inter-
34896	nal independence was allowed on the payment of a tribute, not
34897	indeed definitively fixed, but still expected to reach a certain
34898	amount.' A contingent of troops was also looked for in the case
34899	of a great expedition,'* but could not, we may be sure, be
34900	demanded. Still the strength of the empire was increased, in
34901	war as well as in peace, by these semi-independent tribes, whose
34902	communications with the court may perhaps have taken place
34903	through the satrap on whose province they bordered.*
34904	9. A peculiarity in the arrangement of the satrapies, arising out
34905	of the special circumstances of the empire, deserves a few words
34906	of notice. Herodotus tells us that in some instances a satrapy
34907	was not continuous, but was made up of detached tracts of terri-
34908	tory.^ This was owing to the satrapial divisions being (as
34909	Heeren observes") " ethnical rather than geographical," and to
34910	the local intermixture of distinct races commou throughout the
34911	East. As in modern Turkey, Greeks, Turks, Slaves, Wallacks,
34912	and Albanians live interspersed among one another,^ so within
34913	the limits of the ancient Persia, the difierent nationalities lay
34914	a large defection towards the south- the army of Xerxes (Herod, vii. 69 aud
34915	eastern frontier.
34916	9 Herod, iii. 97.
34917	79). The Sacaiis and Cappadocians, as
34918	before observed, fought at Ai-bela.
34919	' Ibid. V. 18. I 5 Id this sense only can the statement
34920	The Sacans and Cappadocians both made in Herod, i. 134^ be accepted.
34921	sent troops to Arbela (Ai-rian, loc. cit.),
34922	but the former, it is expressly said, as
34923	allies only {nccTa iru^fiecx''"')-
34924	3 See the story of Cambyses and the
34925	Cyi'enseans, when the latter fii^st made
34926	(See note ad loc.)
34927	^ Herod, iii. 89. The passage is a diffi-
34928	cult one, but seems only capable of this
34929	meaning.
34930	' Asiatic Nations, vol. i. p. 350, E. T.
34931	their submission (Herod, iii. 13, and \| ^ A glance at the map in Professor
34932	compare iii. 97). i Miiller's '• Languages of the Seat of
34933	■* The Colchians, the African Ethio- ! War" will show this,
34934	plans, and the Arabians, all served in
p. 561
34935	Essay III. REPRESSION OF THE CONQUERED RACES.
34936	563
34937	scattered and separated. Certainly this was the case with the
34938	Sacans,^ and with the Matieni,^ and it may have been more
34939	widely prevalent. In such cases the jurisdiction of the satrap
34940	extended over the various fragments of the race or races under
34941	his government, and was not confined to a single locality. With
34942	the wandering tribes, which abounded in the southern and east-
34943	ern regions of the empire, the arrangement must have been espe-
34944	cially convenient. Without it they would have been liable to
34945	be claimed as subjects by several satraps, and to have suffered a
34946	multiplied oppression ; or they might perhaps, by skilful manage-
34947	ment, have escaped assessment altogether.
34948	10. The division of the empire into satrapies was, as has been
34949	already observed, originally and primarily, for financial purposes.^
34950	The collection and transmission of the tribute, in money and in
34951	kind,^ was the satrap's first and chief duty. He helped to
34952	maintain the supremacy of the dominant race over the con-
34953	quered tribes, which to so great an extent composed the empire ;
34954	but that important object was in the main secured by practices,
34955	and by an organisation distinct from the satrapial authority. A
34956	few remarks on these points will properly conclude this portion
34957	of the subject.
34958	(i.) The conquered nations were in some instances disarmed ;*
34959	in all, or nearly all, debarred from the profession of arms, which
34960	they could only follow when summoned from their peaceful
34961	avocations on occasion of some grand expedition. This tended
34962	to produce among them an unwarlike temper, and so to keep
34963	them inferior to their masters, with whom the possession and
34964	profession of arms was almost universal.
34965	(ii.) Tribes whose conquest had been very difficult, or which
34966	had revolted after subjection, were not unfrequently removed
34967	' See the great inscription at Nakhsh-
34968	i-Rustam, and compare the note to
34969	Book vii. ch. 64.
34970	1 The Matieni on the Halys (Herod,
34971	i. 72) are geographically distinct from
34972	those who inhabited the Kmrdish moun-
34973	tains (i. 189, V. 49, &c.).
34974	- Supra, § 2. Compare Herod, iii.
34975	89; Xen. Cyrop. viii. vi. § 3.
34976	3 Besides the money tribute of which
34977	Herodotus gives so exact an account
34978	(iii. 90-5), a vast amount of produce
34979	was contributed by the conquered na-
34980	tions to the support of the army and
34981	of the court. I3abylonia supplied one-
34982	third of the latter expense (Herod, i.
34983	192); to which we know that Media
34984	contributed annually 100,000 sheep,
34985	and Cappadocia half that number (Strab.
34986	xi. p. 764), while other coimtries gave
34987	in proportion. Egypt, besides her share
34988	of this expense, supplied corn for
34989	120,000 soldiers, which was the num-
34990	ber of her garrison (Herod, iii. 91).
34991	Cilicia furnished annually 360 white
34992	horses (ib. ch. 90) : Babylon, besides
34993	her corn, 500 boy-eunuchs (ibid. ch.
34994	92). From these instances conclusions
34995	may be drawn as to the rest of the
34996	provinces.
34997	"* See Herod, i. 155-7, which may be
34998	accepted thus far. Heeren injudiciously
34999	adopts the entire narrative (As. Nat. i.
35000	p. 409, E. T.).
p. 562
35001	564
35002	STANDING ARMIES.
35003	App. Book III,
35004	from their own country to a distant part of the empire.^ The
35005	close connexion of patriotism, and the love of liberty with local
35006	attachments, was sufiSciently understood, and experience seems
35007	to have shown that by this means the most refractory could be
35008	made submissive and peaceable.
35009	(iii.) Where extreme measiures such as these were not resorted
35010	to, the subjection of the conquered nations was maintained by
35011	the more simple and natural expedient of keeping on foot large
35012	standing armies, originally consisting entirely of native Persians,''
35013	and distributing them throughout the provinces. These troops
35014	occupied all the strongholds,^ and were quartered in great
35015	numbers throughout the principal towns,^ while a system of
35016	posts,' or government couriers, was so organised that rapid intel-
35017	ligence of a rising in any quarter could be communicated from
35018	city to city, and even from province to province. Large bodies
35019	of troops on which entire dependance could be placed, were thus
35020	within a short time concentrated wherever danger threatened,
35021	and movements of revolt on the part of the conquered, unless in
35022	countries peculiarly situated, were (while the empire retained its
35023	vigour) speedily put down.^ In later times, wlien the Persian
35024	■' The following are the chief known
35025	instances of this practice : 1 . The trans-
35026	portation of a large body of Egyptians
35027	to Susa by Cambyses (Ctes. § 9), of the
35028	Barcseans into Bactria (Herod, iv. 204),
35029	of the Bseonians into Asia Minor (ib.
35030	V. 17), of the Milesians to Amp^ (ib. vi.
35031	20), of the Eretrians to the Susianian
35032	Ardericca (ib. vi. 119), and of the Ca-
35033	riaus and Sitacenians into Babylonia
35034	(Arrian, Exp. Alex. iii. 48). It is pos-
35035	sible, as Heeren supposes (As. Nat. i.
35036	p. 340), that the Colchians may have
35037	been transported Egyptians. Again, it
35038	is not improbable that the population
35039	of the " Egyptian villages " in Asia Mi-
35040	nor, of which Xeuophon speaks (Cyrop.
35041	vii. 1, § 45; Hell. iii. 1, § 7), settled ac-
35042	cording to him by Cyrus after his defeat
35043	of 'Croesus, may really have consisted
35044	of Egyptians transported for rebellion.
35045	How recognised a feature of Persian
35046	policy such transplantation was, is indi-
35047	cated by the ready acceptance given to
35048	the fiction of Histiseus (Herod, vi. 3).
35049	The practice has been at all times com-
35050	mon in the east. With regard to its use
35051	by the Assyrians, see the Essays aja-
35052	pended to Book i. Essay vii. § 39. With
35053	regard to modern times, Chardin tells
35054	us that Shah Abbas transported several
35055	colonies of from 20,000 to 30,000 families
35056	a distance of 200 or 300 leagues (Voyage
35057	en Perse, vol. iii. p. 292); and Ferrier
35058	speaks of the " wholesale removal of
35059	populations" as "common through Cen-
35060	tral Asia" (Cai-avan Journeys, p. 395).
35061	^ Or perhaps of Persians and Medes.
35062	(See Thucyd. i. 104.)
35063	' See Xen. Cyrop. viii. vi. § 1, which
35064	is confirmed historically by many pas-
35065	sages. (Cf. Herod, ii. 30; Xen. Anab. i.
35066	iv. § 4; Arrian, Exp. Alex. i. 17, &c.)
35067	^ The garrison of Memphis in the
35068	time of Herodotus consisted of 120,000
35069	Persians (Herod, iii. 91). In the time
35070	of Alexander 20,000 Persians and 20,000
35071	mercenaries garrisoned the north-west-
35072	ern corner of Asia Minor (Arrian, Exp.
35073	Alex. i. 14). From these numbers the
35074	enormous amount of the entire standing
35075	army may be conjectured,
35076	^ "Ayya.^01, or ayya^niot (vide infia,
35077	viii. 98, and compare Xen. Cyrop. viii.
35078	vi. § 17).
35079	' For a proof of the speed with which
35080	forces could be collected on an emer-
35081	gency, see Herod, v. 102, Compare v.
35082	108. Xen. Anab. i. iv. § 5, and vii.
35083	§§ 11-12. Arrian, ut suprli. The suc-
35084	cessful revolts of conquered nations
35085	were uniformly upon the outskirts of
35086	the empire, and generally in detached
35087	districts, such as Egypt.
p. 563
35088	Essay III. DESPOTIC POWER OF THE KING. 565
35089	race had degenerated, and the standing army consisted in great
35090	part of mercenaries/ such revolts were sometimes crowned with
35091	success ; but the instances are rare even at this period.^
35092	11. From the condition of the conquered races, and of their
35093	immediate rulers, the satraps of the several provinces, it is time
35094	to pass to that of the dominant nation, and of the sovereign.
35095	The Persian monarch was an irresponsible despot. Whatever
35096	limitation may have been placed upon the authority of a weak
35097	and timid king by the grandees of his court, pleading the invio-
35098	lability of Persian law,* it is certain that a sovereign of any
35099	energy of character could set himself up above all legal re-
35100	straints, and follow to the fullest extent the dictates of his own
35101	caprice. The answer of the royal judges to Cambyses sets this
35102	matter in its true light, and shows clearly that the power of the
35103	kings was absolutely without limit. The judges " found a law
35104	that the Persian king might do whatever he pleased."^ Such a
35105	principle would cover any and every transgression of all rules,
35106	religious or other, which might be supposed to have a universal
35107	obligation. Accordingly we find the Achsemenian monarchs not
35108	only tyrannising at will over the persons of their subjects, but
35109	trampling whenever it pleases them upon the most sacred reli-
35110	gious ordinances.'' No class is secure from their oppression, no
35111	privilege beyond their control, no law safe from their infrac-
35112	tion.'' Like other despots they are liable to the last resort of the
35113	oppressed — assassination f but so long as they live, their word is
35114	law, and their will without check or hindrance.
35115	There does not appear to have been in ancient, any more than
35116	in modern^ Persia, a regularly established council. The king
35117	occasionally referred matters to the decision of the royal judges,^°
35118	and convened assemblies of the grandees for deliberation on
35119	2 In the latter times they seem in
35120	some satrapies to have equalled or ex-
35121	ceeded the number of the native troops.
35122	(AiTian, 1. s. c. ; compare iii. 7.)
35123	3 That of Egypt from Darius Nothus
35124	is the most remarkable. Cyprus and
35125	Paphlagonia are perhaps the only other
35126	instances. In the former success was
35127	only temporary.
35128	4 See Dan. vi. 14-15; Herod, ix. 111.
35129	* Herod, iii. 31 : rZ (iaaiXivovTi nsgo-to/v
35130	i^uvai mitTv TO ccv fiovXnrai.
35131	^ Marriage with a sister was clearly
35132	considered as incestuous in Persia, yet
35133	Cambyses married two of his (^Herod. \| p. 390), necessarily Magi,
35134	loc. cit.).
35135	' The law that the king should only
35136	marry from the families of the six con-
35137	spirators (Herod, iii. 84) was one which,
35138	if any, might have seemed likely to be
35139	observed. Yet it was broken by Aha-
35140	suerus (Xerxes?) when he espoused
35141	Esther (Esth. ii. 17).
35142	* Of the nine kings who succeeded
35143	Darius, three (Xerxes I., Xerxes II.,
35144	and Artaxerxes III.) were murdered.
35145	9 See Chardin, vol. ii. p. 29i3.
35146	"* See Herod, iii. 31. There is no
35147	reason to suppose that these judges
35148	were, as Ileeren supposes (As. Nat. i.
p. 564
35149	566
35150	PRIVILEGES OF THE DOMINANT EACE. App. Book III.
35151	affairs of particular importance ;^ but nothing seems to have
35152	bound him either to call such councils, or, if he called them, to
35153	abide by their sentence.^ When a council was summoned at the
35154	court, certain nobles, it is probable, had the right of attendance,
35155	but the monarch might invite to his council-table any persons
35156	whose judgment he valued.^
35157	In default of a legitimate control the Persian kings were apt
35158	to fall under the influence, either of a favourite,^ or more com-
35159	monly of the queen-mother, or of one of their wives.^ Bred up
35160	in the seraglio, under the tutelage of eunuchs and women, and
35161	often with no definite expectation of the crown," they found
35162	themselves at their accession in a state of vassalage, which they
35163	mostly lacked strength to throw off. The real ruler of Persia
35164	was in general a Bagoas, or a Parysatis, in whose hands the
35165	monarch was but a puppet, and who, from the interior of the
35166	gynseceum or harem, directed the counsels and bestowed the
35167	honours of the empire. These disorders however belong to the
35168	later period of the monarchy. They first appear at the close of
35169	the reign of Darius/ and only come into full play after the
35170	return of Xerxes from the Greek expedition.
35171	12. The native Persians themselves, though equally destitute
35172	with the conquered races of any real personal freedom,* were per-
35173	mitted, by the favour or policy of their rulers, certain special
35174	\
35175	' See Herod, vii. 8, viii. 67; Esth. i.
35176	13-15.
35177	- This is evident from the words and
35178	conduct of Xerxes (Herod, vii. 8, 11-18).
35179	3 The " seven princes of Persia " may-
35180	have had the right of attendance, and
35181	so have been called par excellence the
35182	king's counsellors (Esth. i. 14; Ezra vii.
35183	14), but the monarch summoned besides
35184	" all that knew law and judgment"
35185	(Esth. i. 13). Those who attended the
35186	great council of war before the invasion
35187	of Greece seem to have been the satraps
35188	and commanders of the troops through-
35189	out the provinces (Herod, vii. 8, §§ 4
35190	and 19.)
35191	■• Generally a eunuch, as Spamitres
35192	(Ctes. § 29), the favourite of Xerxes in
35193	his later years; Artoxares (ib. § 49),
35194	the favourite of Darius Nothus ; Bagoas
35195	(Diod. Sic. x^^. 50, end), the favourite of
35196	Artaxerxes Ochus, &c. ; but sometimes
35197	a noble, as Mardonius, who governed
35198	Xerxes in the beginning of his reign.
35199	5 See Herod, vii. 3, end; ix. Ill;
35200	Plut. Artaxerx. p. 1861-6; Xen. Anab.
35201	I, i. §§ 3-4.
35202	* The law of succession was very ill
35203	determined (Herod, vii. 2), and left the
35204	monarch a power within certain limits
35205	of determining his successor. This
35206	power he would rarely exercise till to-
35207	wards the close of his life (see Herod,
35208	i. 208; Ctes. Persic. § 8), when the cha-
35209	racter of the youth was formed.
35210	_ <■ Herod, vii. 3, end: 'H ya^"ATi><r(ra
35211	iixi ro TTav K^dros. The accounts given
35212	by Ctesias (Persic. §§ 8, 9), which would
35213	extend to the reigns of Cambyses, and
35214	even of Cyrus, the manners of his own
35215	day, appear to me little worthy of credit.
35216	* Acts of tyrannical cruelty have most
35217	commonly Persians for their objects. It
35218	is sufficient to mention the cases of
35219	Prexaspes (Herod, iii. 35), (Eobazus
35220	(ib. iv. 84), Masistes (ib. ix. 111-3),
35221	Mithridates (Plutarch, ii. p. 1861), and
35222	the twelve nobles buried to the head by
35223	order of Cambyses (Herod, iii. 35, end).
35224	The higher position of the Persians
35225	brought them into contact with the
35226	sovereign more frequently than others.
35227	(See Heeren, As. Nat. i. p. 362.)
p. 565
35228	Essay IIT. GRADATIONS OF RANK AMONG THE PERSIANS. 567
35229	]3rivileges. The province of Persia Proper was exempt from
35230	tribute.^ Persians liad universally precedence over the other
35231	nations which composed the empire.' Offices and employments
35232	of importance, though not absolutely confined to them, were yet,
35233	with rare exceptions, conferred upon the dominant race.^ They
35234	alone appear to have formed the household of the monarch.-^
35235	Many of them received assignments upon the conquered countries,
35236	of houses, lands, and vassals, ■* from which they drew large
35237	revenues. Others accompanied the satraps to their provinces as
35238	bodyguards,^ and lived at the expense of the inhabitants. None
35239	engaged in trade,^ or in any menial employ. All Persians of the
35240	tribes which were neither agricultural nor pastoral, seem, unless
35241	attached to the court, to have followed the profession of arms.
35242	They formed a martial caste, which held itself distinctly above
35243	the rest of the population.
35244	13. Besides the difference here indicated between the three
35245	leading Persian tribes and the other six, some further gradations
35246	of rank and dignity are found to have prevailed. The tribe of
35247	the Pasargadse, to which the royal family of tlie AchaemenidaB
35248	belonged, had a decided pre-eminence over both the Maraphians
35249	and the Maspians." Among the Pasargadse, the royal family,
35250	which owing to the prevalence of polygamy was very numerous,
35251	held the first place. Next in order seem to have followed the
35252	families of the six conspirators, which had the privilege of fur-
35253	5 Herod, iii. 97. Of course it sup- of the government,
35254	ported its satrap and gari'isons, but it ^ Heeren's arguments (As. Nat. i.
35255	paid nothing to the central government, p. 395) scarcely prove that the house-
35256	* In war (Herod, vii. 55, viii. 113, hold was composed entirely of Pasar-
35257	ix. 31). In processions, where the right gadse, but there seems no reason to
35258	hand, the post of honour, was assigned doubt that it was, at least as a general
35259	to them (Xen. Cyi'op. viii. iii. § 10). rule, made up of Persians.
35260	In games (ibid. §25), In approaching ■* Xen. Cyrop. viii. vi. § 5. The state-
35261	the king (ibid. § 1-4). ! ment is confirmed by the known prac-
35262	- It is not very uncommon to find tice of conferring occasionally such gifts
35263	high office entrusted to a Mede (see upon foreigners, as upon Themistooles
35264	Herod, i. 156, 162; vi. 94; vii. 88; i (Thucyd. i. 138) and Demaratus (Herod.
35265	Beh. Inscr. ii. xiv. 6, and iii. xiv. 3), \ vi. 70).
35266	but wondei-fuUy few instances occur of ^ * Orcetes was guarded by a thousand
35267	high office held by a native of any other Persians (Herod, iii. 127). The only
35268	conquered countiy. Profane histoi-y i peculiarity in his case was the number,
35269	furnishes, I believe, but two examples, ^ Hence the contempt which Cyrus
35270	thatofTabalus (Herod, i. 153), and that is said to have expressed for the Lace-
35271	of Xenagoi'as (ibid. ix. 107), Even the dsemouiaus (Herod, i. 153).
35272	Median appointments are rare compared ' Heereu (As. Nat. i. ch. ii.) carries
35273	with the Persian. Of course the cases this pre-eminence beyond its just
35274	must be excepted of tributary princes, bounds, and says nothing of the rank
35275	and native rulers allowed to maintain a of the Maraphians and Maspians. Yet
35276	certain authority over their people, but Herodotus distinctly states it (i. 125,
35277	forming no part of the recognised staff compare iv. 167),
p. 566
35278	rj6s
35279	NO ORDER OF NOBILITY.
35280	A pp. Book III.
35281	nishing wives to the king.^ Among tliese the descendants of
35282	Otanes po^ssessed special rights, though of what nature we have
35283	no distinct information.^ Perhaps the representatives of these
35284	six families, and of the royal house,' formed the " seven princes
35285	of Persia, which saw the king^s face, and sat the first in the
35286	kingdom."^ Further than this there was no order of nobility,
35287	unless we consider the possession of the crown grants mentioned
35288	above, which were handed down from father to son,^ to have
35289	constituted a noble class.
35290	Such seem to have been the chief outlines of a system, which,
35291	simple and inartificial as it was, sufficed to maintain one of the
35292	largest empires that the world has ever seen during a space of
35293	more than two centuries.
35294	^ Herod, iii. 84 (cf. note ad loc).
35295	" We know indeed that the head of
35296	the family of Otanes received an annual
35297	knftan of the most sjjlendid descriiitiou.
35298	But the family must have had other
35299	rights unknowTi to us, to justify the
35300	expression of Herodotus (iii. 83, S/ajte-
35301	Xiii fiovvyi iXivhon invace. Tiipir'iut, xa.)
35302	ap^iTai ToiraZra. o<ra a.iiT» (iXn),
35303	' There is some difficulty in sup-
35304	posing this (see uote^ onBookiii.ch. 71J;
35305	but perhaps the royal house was repre-
35306	sented by the head of the branch next
35307	in order of succession to that upon the
35308	throne, which was the position of Darius
35309	at the time of the conspiracy.
35310	2 Esth. i. 14.
35311	^ Xen. Cyrop. 1. s. c. The estates of
35312	Demaratus were, we know, transmitted
35313	to his descendants (Xen. Hell. iii. i.
35314	§G).
p. 567
35315	Essay IV.
35316	TOPOGRAPHY OF BABYLON.
35317	569
35318	ESSAY IV.
35319	ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF BABYLON.
35320	1. Want of an accurate survey. 2. Great extent of Babylon according to
35321	ancient writers. 3. No traces of the original enceinte. 4. General plan of
35322	the existing ruins. 5. Their position on the left bank of the Euphrates
35323	a difficulty — modes of meeting it. 6. Canal between the northern and the
35324	central ruins. 7. Mound of Babil, the temple of Belus — its present state.
35325	8. Proofs of the identity. 9. Mounds of the Easr and Amrdm, the ancient
35326	palace. 10. Site of the great reservoir. 11. Palace of Neriglissar, and
35327	embankment of Nahunit. 12. Triangular enclosure, of the Parthian age.
35328	13. The 2)'jVs-iV^i/nr«c?— its present appearance. 14. Original plan of the Birs.
35329	15. Its ornamentation. 16. The Birs rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar — his ac-
35330	count of the restoration.
35331	1. The topography of ancient Babylon is a subject which is still
35332	involved in so much doubt and difficulty that only a very slight
35333	sketch of it will be attempted in the present Essay. Accurate
35334	surveys on a large scale have recently been made by thoroughly
35335	competent persons ' under the direction of the British Govern-
35336	ment ; but the results have not yet reached England, and it is
35337	uncertain whether months or years may elapse before they be-
35338	come accessible to the public. In default of these materials it is
35339	necessary to have recourse to the very incomplete and inexact
35340	charts which have been published by the late Mr. Eich ^ and Sir
35341	R. Ker Porter ^ — charts which can only be viewed as giving a
35342	general notion of the extent of the ruins, and roughly deter-
35343	mining a few main positions. It is clearly undesirable, when
35344	the data are so insufficient, and when they are likely to be in
35345	a year or two superseded by materials of a vastly superior cha-
35346	racter, to enter into an elaborate discussion of the various intri-
35347	cate questions involved in the wide subject here proposed for
35348	consideration. Certain main points may, however, be regarded
35349	as sufficiently determined, even by means of the rough surveys
35350	' The chief superintendant of the
35351	surveys has been Captain Jones, already
35352	so well known from his similar laboui's
35353	in Upper Mesopotamia. (See As. Soc.
35354	Joum. vol. XV. Part 2, Art. v.)
35355	^ In his "Memoir on Babylon," first
35356	published in the Mines de I' Orient, and
35357	since frequently reprinted. The last
35358	and best edition is that edited by his
35359	widow in 1839.
35360	•* Travels, vol. ii. opp. page 349. Mr.
35361	Layard is not a separate authority. He
35362	derived the plan given in his Nineveh
35363	and Babylon (p. 490) from Sir R. K.
35364	Porter. See his acknowledgment, p.
35365	492, note.
p. 568
35366	570 EXTENT OF THE ANCIENT CITY. App. Book III.
35367	already published, and certain principal buildings and other
35368	features of the ancient city may be considered as identified by
35369	the inscriptions on their remains and by the descriptive docu-
35370	ments of the Babylonian kings. To these leading features of
35371	the topography, and to these only, it is proposed at present to
35372	direct the reader's attention.
35373	2. The most remarkable fact recorded of Babylon by the
35374	ancient writers is its extraordinary extent. According to Hero-
35375	dotus"* it was a square, 120 stades or nearly 14 miles each way,
35376	covering thus an area of nearly 200 square miles ! This estimate
35377	is somewhat diminished by the historians of Alexander,^ who
35378	reduce the side to about 1 1 miles, and the area to something less
35379	than 130 square miles. Even this space is (according to modern
35380	notions) enormous, being five or six times the size of London.
35381	The authority, however, upon which it rests is of great weight
35382	and importance ; for one cannot but suppose that accurate mea-
35383	surements would be made by the Greeks upon their conquest of
35384	the city.*^ It seems, therefore, necessary to accept the statement,
35385	and to suppose that a wall of great height " surrounded an area of
35386	the size indicated, and that the name Babylon attached in popular
35387	parlance to the entire space within the rampart. Of course, how-
35388	ever, if the wall was of this extent, only a small proportion of the
35389	ground Avithin it can have been covered with buildings. The
35390	Babylon thus described was not a town, but a great fortified dis-
35391	trict very partially built upon, and containing within it not only
35392	gardens and parks, but numerous fields and orchards.^
35393	3. Of the great wall enclosing this space, it is agreed by almost
35394	all travellers that not a vestige remains.^ It has been destroyed
35395	by quarrying, or has sunk into the ditch from which it arose ;'"
35396	and there is no possibility of even determining its position, unless
35397	* Book i. ch. 178. I been generally allowed by modern
35398	* For the details see note * on the -writers. (See Rich's Second Memoir,
35399	above-named chapter. p. 14- ; Ker Porter, vol. ii. p. 386 ;
35400	8 The only ai-gument that can be Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, p. 494 ;
35401	urged with any effect against this, is Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History,
35402	that the walls had perished before vol. i. p. 24, note ^'^, E. T.)
35403	Alexander's conquest, and therefore ^ M. Oppert alone, I believe, disputes
35404	that his historians only reported a tra- this. He is of opinion that he has found
35405	dition. But it is veiy unlikely that traces of the walls, or rather of their
35406	they could have altogether disappeared towers and gates, in certain of the
35407	so early. And Abydenus expressly ; mounds or Tels which cover the flat
35408	states that the wall of Nebuchadnezzar country on either side of the Euphrates,
35409	continued to Alexander's time. (See These views will no doubt be developed
35410	vol. i. Essay %-iii. p. 511, note '.) in his forthcoming work on Mesopota-
35411	7 On the height of the wall see note ^ mia. See Note B at the end of this
35412	on Book i. ch. 178. : Essay.
35413	^ This is declared to have been the j '" See vol. i. Essay viii. p. .528.
35414	case by Q. Curtius (v, i. § 27). It has i
p. 569
35415	Essay IV.
35416	PRESENT STATE OF THE liUINS.
35417	571
35418	by the merest conjecture. The earliest of the Mesopotamian
35419	explorers ' imagmed that it included within it the Birs Nimrud,
35420	which is six miles from the Euphrates ; but the inscriptions
35421	of Nebuchadnezzar
35422	make it certain that [a]
35423	this vast ruin marks
35424	tlie site of a distinct
35425	town.-
35426	-i. The only ruins
35427	wliich can be confi-
35428	dently assigned to the
35429	ancient Babylon are
35430	the group of mounds
35431	upon the Euphrates,
35432	a little above HUlaJi,
35433	which cover a space
35434	about three rnileslono-
35435	and from one to two
35436	miles broad, and are
35437	almost entirely in-
35438	closed within an
35439	iiTegular triangle,
35440	formed by two long
35441	lines of rampart (gg
35442	in the plan) and the
35443	river. These ruins
35444	are generally said to
35445	consist of three great
35446	masses of brickwork,
35447	ihe northernmost of
35448	which (Rich's Miijel-
35449	liheli) is known to the
35450	Arabs as Babil (a in
35451	the plan), the central
35452	as the Kaiir or Palace
35453	''b), and the southern-
35454	.nost (c) as the mound
35455	3f Amrdm. Besides these principal buildings there are various
35456	lesser ruins, among which the most remarkable are two long
35457	Present state of tbe Ruins of Babylon.
35458	Babil, or Temple of Behis.
35459	Kasr, or Palace. i Parts of Nebuchadnezzar's
35460	Jlound of Amram. \ Palace.
35461	Palace of Xeriglissar.
35462	Embankment of Xabunit (the eastern faintly marked).
35463	Ancient Emljankments of Reservoir.
35464	Parthian Earthwork.
35465	Homeira.
35466	' Eich, Second Memoir, pp. 31-2 ;
35467	Ker Porter, vol. ii. p. 382.
35468	- il. Oppert admits that tlie IJirs
35469	Niiarikl marks the site of the aucieiit
35470	VOL. II.
35471	Borsippa, but he supposes this place to
35472	have been a sort of second citadel (Acro-
35473	polis minor) to Babylon, and to have lain
35474	between the outer and the inner walls
35475	2 Q
p. 570
35476	572 THEIR POSITION, App. Book III.
35477	parallel lines of rampart (ff) having a direction nearly north and
35478	south, which shut in the central and southern ruins on the east,
35479	and a similar single line (h), running from east to west, which
35480	bounds the central mass of ruins (the Kasr) towards the north.
35481	Less noticeable, but still of some visible importance, are some
35482	ruins on each side of the Euphrates (dd in the plan) parallel
35483	with the mound of Amram, and an embankment along the river
35484	(e) nearly in the same locality. There are also two shorter lines
35485	of low mounds (l l) to the west of the principal ruins, with a
35486	space between them, from which extends both northwards and
35487	southwards a depression of the soil which looks like an ancient
35488	river-bed, and which is only interrupted seriously at one point
35489	(k) by an irregular mass of rubbish nearly filling up the channel.
35490	Beyond the ruins thus described, towards Hillah on the south
35491	and towards Mohmvill on the north, are low heaps and embank-
35492	ments scattered irregularly over the plain. On the western side
35493	of the river, besides the ruin already mentioned (d), there are a
35494	number of lesser mounds ; and both here and towards the east
35495	the ground is everywhere covered with fragments of brick and
35496	with nitre, the siire marks of former buildings.'^
35497	5. The difficulty which immediately strikes the observer, who,
35498	acquainted with the descriptions of Babylon given by the ancient
35499	Avriters,^ casts his eye over the mass of ruins above described, is
35500	their position, almost without exception, on the left bank of the
35501	river. The ancients unanimously declare that the Euphrates
35502	flowed through Babylon ; and that the most important buildings
35503	were placed on the opposite sides of the stream.^ The Temple
35504	of Belus and the Royal Palace — the two chief edifices — are said
35505	to have been separated by the river, each forming a stronghold
35506	or fortress in its own division of the town. Now although it
35507	must be granted that the Euphrates, having a general tendenc}'
35508	to run off to the westward/' has done much to obliterate the
35509	3 The particulars of this account are
35510	chiefly taken from Rich (First Memoir),
35511	Ker Porter (vol. ii. pp. 337-380), and
35512	Layard (Nineveh and Babylon, pj). 49i)-
35513	2), corrected from the personal recol-
35514	lections of Sir H. Rawlinson and Dr.
35515	Hyslop, the latter of whom was engaged
35516	with Captain Jones in the recent sur-
35517	veys. Reference has also been made
35518	to the letters of M. Fresnel in the
35519	* Besides the description of our au-
35520	thor (i. 178-183), the most important
35521	are those of Diodorus (ii. 7, et seqq.),
35522	which is probably derived from Ctesias.
35523	and of Berosus, as reported by Josephus
35524	(Ant. Jud. X. 11). This last seems to
35525	have been derived by Berosus directly
35526	from Nebuchadnezzar's monuments,
35527	and, if it were less corrupt, would be
35528	invaluable.
35529	Journal Asiittiqne for June and July, i ^ Herod, i. 181. Diod. Sie.ii. 8. Strab.
35530	18.53, and to the general description of \| xvi. § .5, p, 1049. Plin. H. N. vi. 26, &e.
35531	Mr. Loftus (Chaldica, ch. ii.). , ^ Layard, Nin. and Bab. p. 493.
p. 571
35532	Essay IV. ON THE LEFT BANK OF THE EUPHRATES. 573
35533	ruins which originally stood upon the right bank, yet it can
35534	scarcely be thought that this cause is vsufficient to account for the
35535	entire disajjpearance of a building so vast as both these are said
35536	to have been. We ought to find traces both of the palace and
35537	of the temple, and they ought to be separated either by the
35538	main stream of the Euphrates or at least by a branch from it —
35539	which is certainly not the case at present with any of the im-
35540	portant ruins. The suggestion that the Birs-Nimrud represented
35541	the old temple of Belus, though it is distant eight or nine miles
35542	from the true Babylon, originated in the supposed necessity of
35543	finding one or other of the two great buildings among the ruins
35544	still existing to the west of the stream. The Birs is the only ruin
35545	of any magnitude on the right bank at present, and the vast
35546	dimensions ascribed to Babylon by the ancients would allow of its
35547	being included within the ancient enceinte.'^ The identification,
35548	however, of the Birs with Borsippa — a town quite distinct from
35549	Babylon,^ which is rendered certain by the monuments^ — entirely
35550	disposes of this theory ; and we are left to the alternative of
35551	supposing that one or other of the two buildings has perished, or
35552	of finding the remains of both in the ruins on the east or left
35553	bank. It is the opinion of those best qualified to judge that in
35554	the great northern mound, which the Arabs call Babil, may be
35555	recognised the ancient tem^jle of Belus ^" or Bel-Merodach ; while
35556	the central and northern mounds, known as the Kasr and the
35557	mound of Amrdm, mark together the site of the royal residence,'
35558	including both the old palace {ATYirdni) and that more modern
35559	erection (the Kasr), which was not improperly called by Nebu-
35560	chadnezzar Taprati-nisi, ''the Wonder of Mankind." -
35561	6. With respect to the difiiculty which arises from the position
35562	of both these two ruins on the left bank, it may be observed
35563	that a large canal, called by Nebuchadnezzar " the iShebil" is
35564	said by him to have bounded his palace on the north ; and that
35565	this canal, which may either have run east in the line assigned
35566	it in the accompanying plan, or have left the Euphrates higher
35567	up and have been carried in a south-east direction to the head
35568	■^ This was strongly urged by Rich ^ See the inscription upon the Birs
35569	(Second Memoir^ p. 3J) and Ker Porter i Cylinder, infra, p. 584, and compare
35570	(vol. ii. p. 383), who were the first to
35571	propose the identification of the Birs
35572	with the Temple of Belus. It is echoed
35573	by Niebuhr (1. s. c), and Fresnel
35574	(Journ. Asiatique, Juillet, 1853, p. 24).
35575	8 See Beros. Fr. 1 4, p. 508 ; Strab.
35576	xvi. p. 1050 ; Steph. Byz. ad voc, &c.
35577	(
35578	the abstract of the Standard Inscription
35579	in note A at the end of this Essay.
35580	'" Supra, vol. i. p. 321, note *.
35581	' See note ' to Book i. ch. 181.
35582	* In the Standard Inscription, infra,
35583	p. 585.
35584	2 g
p. 572
35585	574
35586	MOUND OF BAML,
35587	Arp. Book 111.
35588	TEMPLE OF BELUS
35589	NERIGLISSAR
35590	of the great reservoir, must most certainly have intervened
35591	between the palace and the temple, and may therefore be the
35592	watercourse which Herodotus regarded as the true river. It was
35593	not, however, the only or
35594	M even the main watercourse
35595	which intersected Babylon.
35596	Nebuchadnezzar speaks of
35597	the " River of Sippara " ^
35598	as the western boundary of
35599	his palace, intending by this
35600	the natural course of the
35601	Euphrates ; which seems to
35602	have passed through the
35603	ruins a little to the east of the
35604	present channel, and to have
35605	again united with it about
35606	halfway between the ruins
35607	and Hillah. The present
35608	course of the stream is of
35609	comparatively recent date ;
35610	it passes through the palace
35611	of Neriglissar, which was
35612	built entirely upon the right
35613	bank, and has washed into
35614	an embankment by which
35615	Nabonidus appears to have
35616	checked its tendency to run
35617	off to the west.
35618	7. The mound of Babll,
35619	which it is proposed to iden-
35620	tify with the temple of Belu s,
35621	is an oblong mass composed
35622	chiefly of unbaked brick,
35623	rising from the plain to the height of 140 feet,"* and having at
35624	the top a broad flat space, broken Avith heaps of rubbish, and
35625	otherwise very uneven. The northern and southern faces of
35626	Portions of Ancient Babylon distinguishable in the
35627	^ present Ruins.
35628	' Standard Inscription, 1. s. c. Sip-
35629	para was situated on both sides of the
35630	river (whence the dual form Sepharvi(/»i)
35631	about the site of the modern Mosaih.
35632	The Euphrates below this point was
35633	known to the Babylonians as the " river
35634	of Sippara;" just as in Arabian times,
35635	when Sippara had become Sura, it was
35636	known as the Nahr-Snra. ■
35637	•* This is Mr. Rich's estimate (Fii-st
35638	Memoir, p. 28), but as he over-esti-
35639	mates the height of the Bits by nearly
35640	one-thii'd, no great dependence can be
35641	placed upon it.
p. 573
35642	Essay IV
35643	THE TEMPLE OF BELUS.
35644	575
35645	the mound are about 200 yards in length,^ the eastern and
35646	western are respectively 182 and 1'36 yards." All the faces,
35647	and especially that which looks to the west, present at intervals
35648	some appearance of brickwork, the bricks being sun-dried,
35649	and cemented, not with bitumen, but with mud, a thin layer of
35650	reeds occurrins; between each course of the brick." Tunnels
35651	driven into the base of the mound on a level with the plain,
35652	show that the structure was formerly coated with a wall of burnt-
35653	view of Babil Irom the West.
35654	brick masonry, supported by numerous piers and buttresses of
35655	the same material.- These baked bricks, as well as most of
35656	those which are found loose among the rubbish wherever it is
35657	dug into, bear the name of Nebuchadnezzar, and were laid in a
35658	fine Avhite mortar.
35659	8. The general character of this building, its square shape,
35660	its solid construction, its isolated grandeur, mark it as the
35661	ziggurat or tower of a Babylonian temple. It closely resembles
35662	5 The exact measurements given by
35663	Mr. Rich are, for the north face 200
35664	yards, and for the south 219 (First
35665	Memoir, p. 28). Sir R. Ker Porter
35666	makes them respectively 5.51 and 552
35667	feet (ii. p. 340).
35668	^ Sir R. K. Porter makes these two
35669	sides of equal length, and gives them
35670	only 230 feet (1. s. c).
35671	^ Rich, First Memoir, p. 29. Sir H.
35672	Rawlinson regards this brick-work as
35673	Parthian. (See note " on Book i. ch.
35674	179.)
35675	^ Mr. Layard drove these tunnels,
35676	and has related the results in his
35677	" Nineveh and Babylon," pp. 503-5.
p. 574
35678	576 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN RUINS. App. Book IIT.
35679	in general appearance the many striking piles which break the
35680	dead level of Babylonia, in some of which inscriptions have been
35681	found proving them to be temples, as at the Birs-i-Nimrud and
35682	at Muglicir.^ To the latter of these two edifices it bears a striking
35683	resemblance. The Muglmr temple is not square but oblong,
35684	and its proportions are almost the same as those of the Bahil
35685	mound. ^ It is also, like that, cased with kiln-baked bricks, and
35686	supported by a number of shallow buttresses. The only remark-
35687	able differences between the buildings are the greater size of the
35688	Babylon temple, and the absence from it of any indication of a
35689	second stage, which is a marked feature of the Mugheir ruin.
35690	It would be rash, however, to conclude fi'om the non-appearance
35691	of any second stage at present, that no upper stage or stages
35692	ever existed. It is to the accidental use of an imperishable
35693	material— blue slag — at the summit of the Birs, that the soli-
35694	tary preservation of that one Baljylonian building in almost its
35695	pristine perfection is owing. In the absence of such a protecting
35696	cap, the upper stages of a temple would rapidly decay and dis-
35697	appear; and hence we find in all Babylonia but a single temple
35698	preserving the pyramidal shape, which (it is probable) was
35699	common to all or almost all of them originally.
35700	On the whole we may conclude, with tolerable confidence,
35701	that in the great northern mound of Babylon we have the
35702	remains of that famous temple, which Herodotus describes so
35703	graphically, and which ancient Avriters generally declare to have
35704	been one of the chief marvels of the Eastern world. Its bricks
35705	bear the name of Nebuchadnezzar,- who relates that he thoroughly
35706	repaired the building f and it is the only ruin which seems to
35707	be that of a temple, among all the remains of ancient Babylon.
35708	9. In the vast and irregular labyrinth of mounds, which, com-
35709	mencing about a mile south of the Babil ruin, extends thence
35710	with little interruption for nearly two miles parallel with the
35711	' See Mr. Loftus's " Chaldsea and of the Lahil mound to have been an
35712	Susiana," pp. 28-30, and 130-2. exact square. He seems to make the
35713	' Mr. Loftns (p. 128) gives the length j south side at present nearly 200 metres,
35714	of the Mugheir Temple as 198 feet, and i the west 170, the east 155, and the north
35715	the breadth as 133 feet, which is within \ 120 metres. The south side he repre-
35716	a fraction of 3 to 2. If we take Mr. I sents as almost perfect, while the north
35717	Rich's measurement of the ircst face as I and west are gi-eatly worn away,
35718	the true one, we have almost exactly ' * Layard, p. 505.
35719	the same proportion (200 to 136). The : ^ In the Standard Inscription (see
35720	chief difference is in the superior size
35721	of the Babel mound, which is measured
35722	by yards instead of feet.
35723	M Oppert believes the original shape
35724	note A. at the end of this Essay). Com-
35725	pare Berosus as quoted in vol. i. (Essay
35726	viii. p. 513, note ^).
p. 575
35727	Essay IV.
35728	THE MOUND OF AMRAM.
35729	577
35730	river, having an average widtli — between a line of rampart on
35731	the east and the old course of the Euphrates on the west —
35732	of twelve or thirteen hundred yards, it is probable that we have
35733	merely the remains of that group of royal residences, towers,
35734	hanging gardens, &c., which formed what was called • ' the
35735	palace,"'* and which are commemorated in the fragments of
35736	Berosus,^ and the standard inscription of Nebuchadnezzar/ In
35737	the great southern ruin, known as the mound of Amrdm (c),
35738	which is llOU yards in length and 800 in its greatest breadth,"
35739	we may recognise the remains of the ancient palace, coeval
35740	probably with Babylon itself, which continued to be the royal
35741	residence to the time of Nabopolassar. This is the only part of
35742	\'ie\v of tlic I'iaoi".
35743	the ruins in which inscriptions belonging to early kings have
35744	been found ; a fact which, coupled with the comparative poor-
35745	^ Herod, i. 181.
35746	5 Fr. 14. See vol. i. p. 512, note 7.
35747	" See note A. at the end of tlie Essay,
35748	' Rich, First Memoir, p. 21. Ker
35749	Porter describes the mound of Amram
35750	as a triangle, the sides of which are
35751	respectively 1400, 1100, and 850 feet
35752	(ii. p. 371). M. Oppert agrees nearly
35753	with this view. He represents the
35754	mound as triangular, and the sides as
35755	proportioned thus — the western H.'iO
35756	metres, the eastei-n 540, and the north-
35757	ern 420 meti'es.
p. 576
35758	578
35759	THE KASR.
35760	App. Book III.
35761	ness of the materials employed, and the entire absence from the
35762	structure (so far as appears) of all fine masonry,^ sufficiently
35763	indicates the superior antiquity of its erection. The more
35764	northern mound (b), now called Mujellibeh, and crowned by the
35765	building named the Kasr, is undoubtedly a construction of
35766	Nebuchadnezzar, and may be almost certainly identified with
35767	the "new palace adjoining his father's," which is ascribed to
35768	him, and which he claims to have erected \n fifteen dai/s.-' This
35769	mound is smaller than that of Amram, being an irregular square
35770	of about 700 yards each way ;^ but it appears to have been
35771	"composed of buildings far superior to all the rest which have
35772	left traces in this quarter,"^ and it has furnished the only sculp-
35773	tures and bas-reliefs which have as yet beeu discovered among
35774	the ruins."* The remarkable fragment on its summit, called the
35775	Kasr, is a solid mass of masonry, composed of pale yellow bricks
35776	of excellent quality, bound together by fine lime cement, and
35777	stamped in almost every instance with the name and titles of
35778	Nebuchadnezzar.* Slabs inscribed by this king, and containing
35779	8 Layard, p. 509. Ker Porter, ii.
35780	pp. 371-2, M. Oppert sees in the mound
35781	of Amram the remains of the famous
35782	"hanging-gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar.
35783	9 See the Standard Inscrijjtion, and
35784	compare Beros. Fr. 14 : T^oincaTS(rxiva.trs
35785	Tols 'Jfa.T^ix.oii (ixtriAZioii iripa fiaa'iXliec
35786	i'^of/.tva. avTuv, civ ri fiiv avsc<rT'/iiu.u x.a.i t'/iv
35787	Xoi'Trhy ToAorlXiiav 'jri^Mffr^v i<tu: av sr/i
35788	Xiyiif, tX/iv ii; ovra fiiyaXa zai uTtpviipava
35789	iruviTiXi(r6^ ri//.i^a.i; TiMTucaioiKa. Many
35790	slabs broiight by Sir H. Rawliiison from
35791	the Kasr, bear the inscription, " the
35792	palace of Nebuchadnezzar." One of
35793	these is in the British Museum.
35794	Rich, First Memoir, p.
35795	Ker
35796	Porter calls the length of the mound
35797	800, and the breadth 600 feet (ii. p.
35798	355). M. Oppert believes it to have
35799	been a square, but makes the length of
35800	the present mound from N. to S. 420
35801	metres, the greatest breadth 380 meti'es,
35802	and the average breadth 300 metres.
35803	- Rich^ 1. 8. 0.
35804	^ The most remai'kable of these are
35805	a " block of basalt, roughly cut to
35806	repi'esent a lion standing over a pros-
35807	trate human figure," which is still
35808	lying in situ (Loftus, p. 19), and a
35809	fragment of slab or frieze, comj)osed
35810	of figures nearly alike, representing a
35811	Babylonian deity (Layard, p. 508).
35812	" Layard, p. 506. Fragments of en-
35813	amelled bricks, brightly coloured, are
35814	abundant in the mound oi t\ie Mujcllihch.
35815	"The principal colours are a brilliant
35816	blue, red, a deep yellow, white, and
35817	black." (Layard, p. 507.) Portions
p. 577
35818	Essay IV.
35819	THE ^YESTEHN PALACE.
35820	579
35821	an account of the building of the palace, have also been brought
35822	from the mound, and serve still further to identify it.
35823	10. The two long parallel lines of rampart (fi), a mile in
35824	length, and somewhat more than 100 yards apart,^ which shut
35825	in this entire mass of ruins upon the east, are (like the great
35826	bulk of the remains) of ancient Babylonian construction, and
35827	may either represent the "outer and inner walls" of the
35828	palace/' or (more probably) the embankments along "the
35829	Yapur-Shapu, the great reservoir of Babylon," which some one
35830	of the early kings seems to have built, but which Nebuchad-
35831	nezzar greatly strengthened and enlarged." The single line of
35832	rampart (h) which closes in the mound of the Kasr upon the
35833	north, is perhaps a construction of Neriglissar, who affirms that
35834	he " made a new bed for the eastern canal (or /Shebil), and with
35835	brick and mortar built up its sides.^'
35836	11. Parallel with the mound of Amrdm, on either side of the
35837	present bed of the Euphrates, are remains (d d), which appear
35838	to have belonged to a second palace, situated on the right bank
35839	of the stream.^ On the bricks of that portion of the building
35840	which is now on the left bank, the name and titles of Neriorlissar
35841	have been found ; from which it appears that he either originally
35842	constructed, or at least repaired the edifice. Near to this palace,
35843	a little more to the south, the Euphrates has washed into
35844	an embankment (e), the bricks of which are stamped with the
35845	name and titles of Nabunit, who is stated by Berosus ^ to have
35846	built quays along the stream.
35847	12. The triangular boundary (gg), which forms the extreme
35848	eastern limit of the great mass of the ruins, does not appear to
35849	be a Babylonian, but a Parthian work ; and it may therefore
35850	be omitted altogether from the present discussion. As has
35851	been already observed, no traces of the ancient enceinte exist ;
35852	or at least, among the innumerable embankments which fret
35853	the country both to the east and to the west of the Euphrates,
35854	of the figures of men and animals are
35855	traceable on the fragments. It is pro-
35856	bable that these bricks foi'med the
35857	adomment of the interior, where hunt-
35858	ing scenes were represented. (See the
35859	Letter of M. Fresnel in the Journal
35860	Asiatique for June, 1853, pp. 486-490,
35861	and comp. Diod. Sic. ii. 8.)
35862	'" Rich, First Memoir, p. 19. Sir H.
35863	Eawlinson estimated the distance at
35864	about 7(t yards.
35865	^ See note A., sub fin.
35866	' Ibid.
35867	8 Diodorus, it may be remarked,
35868	spoke of two palaces, one on either side
35869	of the river, and connected by a bridge
35870	(ii. 8). I have already observed tliat
35871	the river flowed formerly down the
35872	long valley which skirts the MnjcUiheli
35873	and Amn'tin mounds on the west. Can
35874	the curious heap (K on the plan) be a
35875	remnant of the ancient bridge ?
35876	^ Fr. 14. The passage is given in
35877	the first volume, ji. -y'lX. note '.
p. 578
35878	580 BIRS-NIMRUD— PEESENT APPEARANCE, App. Book 111.
35879	none has been as yet discovered with claims superior to the
35880	remainder.
35881	13. Before concluding this Essay, it seems proper that some
35882	account should be given of the great rnin Avhich has long dis-
35883	puted with Bahil the honour of representing the Temple of
35884	Belus, and which a few years back was very completely ex-
35885	plored by Sir H. Rawlinson.
35886	At the distance of about six miles from Hillah, in a south-
35887	west direction, and eight or nine miles from the nearest point
35888	of the ruins above described, stands the huge p3a-amidical
35889	mound, to which the Arabs give the name of Birs-Nimrud, a
35890	solitary pile rising suddenly from the vast expanse of the
35891	desert. This mound, like that of Bahil, is an oblong square.
35892	Its angles face the four cardinal points.' The north-western
35893	and south-eastern faces, which are the largest, have been esti-
35894	mated to measure 643 feet ; the north-eastern 420, and the
35895	south-western 376 feet.- The height above the plain is about
35896	153 feet.^ The ruin consists of two parts — a huge pyramidical
35897	mass towards the south-west, and a comparatively low projection
35898	towards the opposite quarter. The length of this latter is said
35899	to be 240 feet." Thus apart from this projection, which clearly
35900	marks the vestibule or approach to the temple, the main build-
35901	ing may be described as a j)yramid 153 feet high, and 400 feet
35902	square at the base.
35903	To the ordinary observer the mound presents the appearance
35904	rather of a natural hill, crowned by a ruin,'' than that of a struc-
35905	ture built entirely by the hand of man. Thirty-seven feet of
35906	solid brickwork, looking almost like a tower, stand exposed at
35907	the top, while below this the original liuilding is almost entirely
35908	concealed beneath the masses of rubbish which have crumbled
35909	down from the upper portion. The whole structure, however, i>;
35910	deeply channelled by the weather, and in places the original
35911	brickwork aj)pears, sufficiently revealing to a critical eye the
35912	• Curiously enough both Rich and Is the mound oi Buhil really an excej)-
35913	Porter speak of the sides as facing the tion to the ordinary rule ?
35914	cardinal points, instead of the angles ^ Ker Porter, ii. p. 321. Rich makes
35915	(see Rich's First Memoir, p. 28 ; Ker \ the circumference 200 feet less than
35916	Porter, ii. p. :'>10, &c.). It \va.s pro- : Porter (p. 36). He gives 7(32 yards
35917	bably a fixed architectural law in Baby- (2286 feet), instead of Porter's 2082 feet.
35918	Ionia to give temples this aspect. They \ ^ The exact measurement of Captain
35919	have it, not only at the Bii's, but at , Jones with tlie theodolite is 153 ft. 6 in.
35920	Warka and Mtujheir, and (I believe) ■ ■* Ker Porter, 1. s. c.
35921	wherever their position has been cai'e- i = See the representati<in in vol. i.
35922	fully examined (see Loftus, p. 171). p. 242.
p. 579
35923	Essay TV.
35924	MEASUREMENTS.
35925	581
35926	true character and plan of the building. Accordingly many
35927	travellers, on a mere superficial view of the structure, caine to
35928	the conclusion that it was originally built in stages," and that —
35929	whether it were the remains of the Temple of Belus or no — at
35930	any rate it closely resembled that building as described by
35931	Herodotus. Sir R. Ker Porter" and Mr. Layard® even ventured
35932	on I'estorations of the original design, which, although not
35933	entirely in accordance with the reality, went near to anticipate
35934	the conclusions which have now been established by a close
35935	examination of the edifice.
35936	14. It appears from the researches carried on by Sir H. Raw-
35937	linson, in the year 1854, that the Birs-Nimrud, like the temple
35938	of Belus described by our author, was a building in seven re-
35939	ceding stages.' Upon a platform of crude brick, raised a few
35940	feet above the level of the alluvial plain, was built of burnt
35941	brick, the first or basement stage — an exact square, 272 feet
35942	each way, and 26 feet in perpendicular height. Upon this stage
35943	was erected a second, 230 feet each way, and likewise 26 feet
35944	liigh ; which, however, was not placed exactly in the middle
35945	of the first, but considerably nearer to the south-western end,
35946	which constituted the back of the buildinor. The other stages
35947	were arranged similarly — the third being 188 feet, and again 26
35948	feet high ; the fourth 146 feet square, and 15 feet high; the
35949	fifth 104 feet square, and the same height as the fourth ; the
35950	" Rich, First Memoir, p. 54 ; Ker
35951	Porter, ii. pp. :510, 322, &c. ; Layard,
35952	p 497.
35953	' Vol. ii. plate 71. Sir R. K. Porter
35954	gave the building eight stages, the
35955	basement stage being a square of 5(i0
35956	feet. He supposed that only portions
35957	of four stages remained, and that the
35958	original height was also oCiO feet.
35959	^ Mr. Layard gave the building six
35960	stages, and suggested that while the
35961	stages rose like steps on the eastern or
35962	south-eastern (north-eastern ?) side, they
35963	terminated on the western or north-
35964	western (south-western?) in a "solid
35965	perpeiidicnhir w'all" (Nin. and Bab. p.
35966	498). The reality is half-way between
35967	Sir R. Porter's and Mr. Layard's con-
35968	ceptions.
35969	' The accompanying restoration (see
35970	overleaf) will illustrate this paragraph.
35971	Its proportions are derived from the
35972	measurements of Col. Rawlinson.
35973	"^'
35974	3J^!t^L=i'<
35975	XSqs
p. 580
35976	582
35977	ORIGINAL PLAN OF THE TEMrLE. App. Book III.
35978	•o ts . —
35979	s^
35980	1 O
35981	d) 1
35982	Cp
35983	■i2^
35984	■^i
35985	!» "
35986	r- C
35987	E.2
35988	X
35989	cc >
35990	C;
35991	.sa
35992	-.r. ■i ^s.
35993	O GJ tfi ^
35994	= 2 I
35995	I ^7 g
35996	K ^ *J X -^
35997	^ —
35998	^ c •-.!:< 5 ^
35999	<C0OOuJu.OX
p. 581
36000	Essay IV. PLANETARY ORNAMENTATION. 583
36001	sixth 62 feet square, and again the same height ; and the
36002	seventh 20 feet square and once more the same height. On the
36003	seventh stage there was probably placed the ark or tabernacle,
36004	which seems to have been agrain 15 feet hiijh, and must have
36005	nearly, if not entirely, covered the top of the seventh story.
36006	The entire original height, allowing three feet for the platform,
36007	would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the platform, 153
36008	feet. The whole formed a sort of oblique pyramid, the gentler
36009	slope facing the N.E., and the steeper incline the S.W. On the
36010	N.E. side was the grand entrance, and here stood the vestibule,
36011	a separate building, the debris from which having joined those
36012	from the temple itself, fill up the intermediate space, and very
36013	remarkably prolong the mound in this direction.
36014	15. The ornamentation of the building was almost solely by
36015	colour. The seven stages were coloured so as to represent the
36016	seven planetary spheres,^ according to the tints regarded by the
36017	Sabseans as appropriate to the seven luminaries — the basement
36018	stage being black, the hue assigned to Saturn ; the next an
36019	orange, or raw-sienna tint,^ the hue of Jupiter ; the third a
36020	bright red, the hue of Mars ; the fourth golden, the hue of the
36021	Sun ; the fifth a pale yellow, the hue of Venus ; the sixth dark
36022	blue, the hue of Mercury ; and the seventh silver, the hue of the
36023	Moon. The tint in the first instance was given by a coating of
36024	bitumen over the face of burnt bricks ; in the second and fifth,
36025	by the natural hue of the burnt bricks themselves ; in the third,
36026	by the use of half-burnt bricks of a bright red clay ; in the sixth
36027	by vitrifaction, after the stage was erected, of the bricks com-
36028	posing it, through the force of an intense heat, whereby they
36029	were converted into a mass of blue slag ; and in the fourth and
36030	seventh, probably by plates of the precious metals forming an
36031	external casing to the brickwork.'' Along the third stage,
36032	which was of a weaker material than the rest, the flatness of the
36033	« See note * to Book i. ch. 98.
36034	3 Herodotus expresses this tiut by
36035	the word (ravl-^pa.x.i]ioM, which is generally
36036	explained as the colour of the red sul-
36037	phuret of arsenic, called by the Greeks
36038	crav}cipdx.n; but is thought by some to
36039	be really the colour of "sandal-wood,"
36040	Sandidi (which has that meaning) being
36041	the term commonly applied to the
36042	sun and moon were represented at
36043	Agbatana (i. 98, ad fin.). It has already
36044	been shown (note ad loc.) that such a
36045	lavish disj)lay of the precious metals
36046	was in accordiuoe with Eastei-n habits.
36047	At the Dirs the fourth or golden stage
36048	presents an appearance as if the face
36049	of the wall had been entirely broken
36050	away by blows from a pickaxe. Nebu-
36051	sphere in tlie astrology of the East. ; chaduezzar, in descinbing his temples
36052	■* This, it must be remembered, is j and palaces, often speaks of them as
36053	the account given by Herodotus of the 1 "clothed with gold."
36054	manner in which the spheres of the \|
p. 582
36055	584 THE BIRS BUILT BY XEBUCHADXEZZAR. app. Took III.
36056	wall was broken by a row of buttresses, not placed there how-
36057	ever for the purpose of ornamentation, but merely to give
36058	additional strength. This stage too was not, like the rest,
36059	entirely perpendicular, but had an abutment at the base, and a
36060	species of plinth formed by three rows of bricks laid on their
36061	edsfes between single horizontal rows. The entire mass of
36062	brickwork was also pierced throughout by a rhomboidal series of
36063	small square holes, which served to keep the structure dry, by
36064	admitting air, and also by carrying off any moisture that might
36065	penetrate into it.
36066	16. Such were the most striking features of the great Temple
36067	of Borsippa, which was designed and named after the " Seven
36068	Spheres," but was especially dedicated to Nebo or Mercury,
36069	whose tabernacle probably occupied its summit. It was not
36070	perhaps originally superior to hundreds of temples in Baby-
36071	lonia ; but it has escaped, far more than any other, the ravages
36072	of time, and thus is the ruin to which we are chiefly indebted for
36073	our knowledge of the plan and character of the Babylonian
36074	sacred buildings. The date of the original structure is uncer-
36075	tain, but is probably very ancient. In its present form the
36076	Birs is chiefly the work of Nebuchadnezzar, whose name
36077	appears exclusively upon the bricks composing it, and the
36078	cylinders deposited at its angles.^ The following is the ac-
36079	count which the roval restorer skives of his careful renovation of
36080	the edifice : —
36081	"Behold now the building named 'the Stages of the Seven
36082	Spheres,' which was the wonder of Borsippa, had been built by
36083	a former king. He had completed forty-two ammas (of the
36084	height), but he did not finish its head. From the lapse of time
36085	it had become ruined ; they had not taken care of the exits of
36086	the waters, so the rain and wet had penetrated into the brick-
36087	work ; the casing of burnt bricks had bulged out, and the ter-
36088	races of crude brick lay scattered in heaps ; (then) Merodach,
36089	my great lord, inclined my heart to repair the building. I did
36090	not change its site, nor did I destroy its foundation platform ;
36091	but in a fortunate month, and on an auspicious day, I imder-
36092	took the rebuilding of the crude brick terraces, and the burnt
36093	brick casing (of the temple). I strengthened its foundation,
36094	* Sir H. Rawliuson discovered two of ments of another, the inscription upon
36095	these at the eastern and southern angles i which was different. There are pro-
36096	of the third jstage. They were diipli- bably many eylinder.s still in the
36097	cates. He also found a -few small frag- building.
p. 583
36098	Essay IV. INSCRIPTION OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 585
36099	and I placed a titular record in the part that I had rebuilt. I
36100	set my hand to build it up and to finish its summit. As it had
36101	been in ancient times, so I built up its structure ; as it had been
36102	in former days, thus I exalted its head. Nebo, the strengthener
36103	of his children, he who ministers to the Gods (?), and Merodach,
36104	the supporter of sovereignty, may they cause my work to be
36105	established for ever ! May it last through the seven ages !
36106	May the stability of my throne and the antiquity of my empire,
36107	secure against strangers and triumphant over many foes, con-
36108	tinue to the end of time ! "
36109	NOTE A.
36110	STANDARD INSCKll'TlOX 0¥ NEBUCHADNEZZAR.
36111	The Inscription begins with the various titles of Nebuchadnezzar. It then
36112	contains prayers and invocations to the Gods, Merodach and Nebo. The extent
36113	of N.'s power is spoken of — it reaches from one sea to the other.
36114	An account is then given of the wonders of Babylon, viz. : —
36115	1. The great temple of Merodach. (The mound of JJahil is the tower or
36116	ziggttrat of this.)
36117	2. The Borsippa temple (or Birs).
36118	3. Various other temples in Babylon aud Borsippa.
36119	The subjoined description of the city follows : —
36120	" The double enclosure which Nabopolassar my father had made but not
36121	completed, I finisbed. Nabopolassar made its ditch. With two long embank-
36122	ments of brick and mortar he bound its bed. He made the embankment of
36123	the AraJcha. He lined the otlier side of the Euplirates v.-ith brick. He made
36124	a bridge (?) over the Euphrates, but did not finish its buttresses (?). From
36125	* * * (the name of a place) he made with bricks burnt as hard as stones, by
36126	tlie lielp of the great Lord Merodach, a way (for) a branch of the Shimat to
36127	the waters of the Yapur-Shaiju, the great reservoir of Babylon, opposite to
36128	the gate of Nin.
36129	" The Ingur-Bel and the Nimiti-Bel — the great double wall of Babylon —
36130	I finished. With two long embankments of brick and mortar I built the
36131	sides of its ditch. I joined it on witli that which my father had made. I
36132	strengthened the city. Across the river to the west I built the wall of
36133	Babylon with briclc. The Yapur-Shupn — the reservoir of Babylon — by the
36134	grace of Merodach, I filled completely full of water. AVith bricks burnt as
36135	hard as stones, and with bricks in huge masses like mountains (?), the Yapur-
36136	ShapjiL, from the gate of Mula as far as Nana, who is the protectress of her
p. 584
36137	586 STANDARD INSCRIPTION. App. Book III.
36138	votaries, by the grace of his goclship {i. e. Merodach), I strengthened. "With
36139	that which my father had made I joined it. I made the way of Nana, the pro-
36140	tectress of her votaries. The great gates of the Tnrjur-Bd and the Nimiti-Bel —
36141	the reservoir of Babylon, at the time of the flood (lit. of fulness), immdated
36142	them. These gates I raised. Against the waters their foundations with
36143	brick and mortar I built. [Here follows a description of the gates, with various
36144	architectural details, and an account of the decorations, hangings, &c.] For
36145	the delight of mankind I filled the reservoir. Behold ! besides the Ingur-BeJ,
36146	the impregnable fortification of Babylon, I constructed inside Babylon on the
36147	eastern side of the river a fortification such as no king had ever made before
36148	me, viz. a long rampart, 4000 ammas square, as an extra defence. I exca-
36149	vated the ditch : with brick and mortar I bound its bed ; a long rampart at
36150	its head (?) I strongly built. I adorned its gates. The folding-doors and
36151	the pillars I plated with copper. Against presumptuous enemies, who were
36152	hostile to the men of Babylon, great waters, like the waters of the ocean, I
36153	made use of abundantly. Their depths were like the depths of the vast ocean.
36154	I did not allow the waters to overflow, but the fulness of their floods I caused
36155	to flow on, restraining them with a brick embankment. . . . Thus I com-
36156	pletely made strong the defences of Babylon. May it last for ever !
36157	[Here follows a similar account of works at Borsippa.]
36158	" In Babylon — the city which is the delight of my eyes, and which I have
36159	glorified — when the waters were in flood, they inundated the foundations of
36160	the great palace called Taprati-nisi, or " the Wonder of Mankind ;" (a i^alace)
36161	with many chambers and lofty towers ; the high-place of Royalty ; (situated)
36162	in the land of Babylon, and in the middle of Babylon ; stretching from the
36163	Ingur-Bd to the bed of the Shehil, the eastern canal, (and) from the bank of
36164	the Sippara river to the water of the Tapur-Shajni ; which Nabopolassar my
36165	father built with brick and raised up ; when the reservoir of Babylon was
36166	full, the gates of this palace were flooded. I raised the mound of brick on
36167	which it was built, and made smooth its platfonn. I cut oft' the floods of the
36168	water, and the foundations (of the palace) I protected against the water with
36169	bricks and mortar ; and I finished it completely. Long beams I set up to
36170	support it : with pillars and beams plated with copper and strengthened with
36171	iron 1 built up its gates. Silver and gold, and precious stones whose names
36172	were almost unknown [Here follow several unknown names of objects, trea-
36173	sures of the palace], I stored up inside, and placed there the treasure-house of
36174	my kingdom. Four years (.?), the seat of my kingdom in the city . . . .,
36175	which did not rejoice (my) heart. In all my dominions I did not
36176	build a high place of power ; the precious treasures of my kingdom I did not
36177	lay up. In Babylon, buildings for myself and the honour of my kingdom I
36178	did not lay out. In the worship of Merodach my lord, the joy of my
36179	heart (?), in Babylon, the citj^ of his sovereignty and the seat of my empire,
36180	I did not sing his praises (.?), and I did not furnish his altars (i.e. with
36181	victims), nor did I clear out the canals, [Here follow further negative
36182	clauses, j
36183	" As a fui'ther defence in war, at the Ingur-Bd, the impregnable outer wall,
36184	the rampart of the Babylonians — with two strong lines of brick and mortar
36185	I made a strong fort, 400 ammas square, inside the Nimiti-Bel, the inner
36186	defence of the Babylonians. Masonry of brick within them (the lints) I coii-
36187	structed. With the palace of my father I connected it. In a happy month
p. 585
36188	Essay IV. BABYLONIAN RESEAECHES OF M. OPPEET. 587
36189	and on an auspicious day its foundations I laid in the earth like * * * I com-
36190	pletely finished its top. In fifteen days I completed it, and made it the high
36191	place of my kingdom. [Here follows a description of the ornamentation of the
36192	palace.] A strong fort of brick and mortar in strength I constructed. Inside
36193	the brick fortification another great fortification of long stones, of the size of
36194	great mountains, I made. Like Shedim I raised up its head. And this
36195	building I raised for a wonder ; for the defence of the peojile I constructed it."
36196	NOTE B.
36197	BABYLONIAN RESEARCHES OF M. OPPERT.
36198	Since this Essay was in type I have enjoyed the advantage of examining
36199	three livraisonR of Plates belonging to the magnificent work which will shortly
36200	be published by M. Oppert, on the subject of the French expedition into
36201	Mesopotamia. As these plates are unaccompanied by any letter-press it is
36202	impossible at present to be sure how far they are based upon accurate measure-
36203	ments or observations. In some respects the views taken coincide remarkably
36204	with those expressed in the foregoing Essay. This is especially the case as
36205	regards the ancient course of the Euphrates, and the position of the lesser
36206	palace (that of Neriglissar) upon the right bank of the stream. In other points
36207	M. Oppert differs from all former observers, and is not confirmed by the notes
36208	and recollections of recent visitants ; as in his omission of the two long parallel
36209	embankments (ff in the plan, supra, page 571), whicli close in the chief ruins on
36210	the east ; of the single embankment (h) towards the north ; and of the mound
36211	(k) on the west, which interi'upts what seems to be the ancient bed of the river ;
36212	and, again, in the extent and position which he assigns to the curious heap
36213	called Hdmeira. Capt. Jones's surveys will decide whether these changes are
36214	in accordance with the real features of the locality ; at present the judgment
36215	is necessarily held in suspense between rival observers, whose accounts of the
36216	ruins are in many respects so diflerent. With regard to M. Oppert's restora-
36217	tions of the ancient city the most remarkable points have been already noticed
36218	in the foot-notes. He believes that he has found traces of the ancient walls in
36219	certain lines of Tels which exist on both sides of the Euphrates. If the posi-
36220	tions of these mounds are accurately laid down on his map, which is fairlj^
36221	represented by the subjoined chart, there would appear to be some grounds for
36222	regarding the lesser circuit of 360 stades as really indicated by the remains in
36223	question, though, upon the showing of the map itself, the larger circuit is
36224	almost entirely unsupported. It is an additional objection to this circuit, as
36225	placed by M. Oppert, that it includes Borsiilpa, Avhich the inscriprtions, the
36226	native writer Berosus, and the classical geographers, all regard as a city quite
36227	distinct from Babylon. The inclusion of Cutha in the opposite corner of the
36228	square, marked (as M. Opi'ert supposes) by the ruins of Hymar, or Oheimir,
36229	is still more impossible ; for Cutha was at least 15 miles from Hymar in a
36230	north-easterly direction, being marked, not by the Hymar group, but by the
36231	ruins at Ibrahim. In his restoratidu of the royal residence- — which has at
36232	VOL. II. ^ R
p. 586
36233	588
36234	BABYLONIAN RESEARCHES
36235	App. Book III.
36236	cMOHAWIL
36237	Chart of the Country round Babylon, with the limits of the ancient City, according to Oppert.
36238	least the merit of boldness — M. Oppert appears to have discarded alike the
36239	guidance of the inscriptions and that of the ancient writers. He takes no
36240	notice of Nebuchadnezzar's " Great Reservoir," of hiis " Shehil," or " Eastern
36241	Canal," nor of the " palace of his father," which adjoined his own ; he places
36242	the lesser palace opposite, not to the greater one, as Ctesias did, but to the
36243	hanging-gardens ; and he regards the hanging-gardens as represented by the
36244	mound of Amrdin, though the latter has an area at least four times as great
36245	as that ascribed by Diodonis to the former. He also fails to give in his restora-
36246	tion at all a close representation of the present ruins, introducmg main walls,
36247	as that between the river and Bubil, of wliich he does not profess to have
36248	fonnd a trace ; placing the quay of Nabonidus above a mile higher up the
36249	stream than the place where that mouarcli's bricks are found ; and turning
36250	into a " middle wall " what cleai-ly appears, by the traces of water-action out-
36251	side it, to have been the embankment of a canal or reservoir. He also, in
p. 587
36252	Essay IV.
36253	OF M. OPPERT.
36254	589
36255	assuming the oiiter triangular rampart to be a Babylonian woi-k restored by the
36256	Parthians, goes beyond the existing data, since no Babylonian remains have (it
36257	is believed) been found in that structure. On the other hand, M. Oppert's
36258	surveys of particular ruins, as of the Kasr, Bahil, and the Birs-Niirmid, .ii-e
36259	(ai^parently) much in advance of any hitherto published ; while his " Views "
36260	are alike striking and original, greatly increasing the attractiveness of his
36261	work.
36262	i
36263	Tho Ri.yal Residonoo at Babylon restored (after Oppert).
36264	It '^
36265	i
p. 588
36266	590 THE BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION. App. Book 111.
36267	NOTE C.
36268	THK GREAT INSCRIPTION OF DARIUS AT BEHISTUN.
36269	[Note. — Bebistuu is situated on the western froutier of the ancient Media, upon the
36270	road from Babylon to the southern Ecbatana. the great thoroughfare between
36271	the eastern and the western provinces of the ancient Persia. The precipitous
36272	rock, 1700 feet high, on which the writing is inscribed, forms a portion of the
36273	great chain of Zagros, which separates the high plateau of Iran from the vast
36274	plain watered by the two streams of the Tigris and Euphrates. The inscription
36275	is engraved at the height of 300 feet from the base of the rock, and can only
36276	be reached with much exei'tion and difficulty. It is trilingual : one transcript
36277	is in the ancient Persian, one in Babylonian, the other in a Scythic or Tatar
36278	dialect. Col. Rawlinson gathers from the monument itself that it was executed
36279	in the 5th year of the reign of Darius, B.C. 516. The subjoined is the Persian
36280	transcript, as deciphered by Col. Rawlinson, Roman letters being substituted
36281	for the original cuneiform. Col. Rawlinson's translation is also given. The
36282	numbers are added for convenience of reference.]
36283	Column I.
36284	Par. 1. (1) Adam Darayavush, (2) khshayathiya vazarka, (3) khsha-
36285	yathiya '^/(s7i%rtthiyanam, (4) klishayathiyaParsiya, (5) khsha-
36286	yathiya dahya?/HrtH(, (6) Vishtaspahya putra, (7) Arshatnahya
36287	napa, (8) HakhamanisAi^/o.^
36288	(1) I (am) Darius, (2) the great king, (3) the king of kings,
36289	(4) the king of Persia, (5) the king of the (dependent) provinces,
36290	(6) the son of Hystaspes, (7) the grandson of Arsames, (8) the
36291	Achfemenian.
36292	Par. 2. (1) TVtdtiya Darayavush khshaj-athiya ; (2) Mana pita Vish-
36293	taspa ; (3) Vishtaspahya pita Arshama ; (4) Arshamahya pita
36294	Ariyaramana ; (5) Ariyaramana/?y« pita Chishpaish ; (6) * pita
36295	Hakhamanish.
36296	(1) Says Darius the king— (2) My father (was) Hystaspes ;
36297	(3) the father of Hystaspes (was) Arsames ; (4) the father of
36298	Arsames (was) Ariaramnes ; (5) the father of Ariaramnes (was)
36299	Teispes ; (6) the father (of Teispes) was Acha^menes.
36300	' The italics indicate that the original and its kindred languages,
36301	is in such places illegible, and restored ^ Chishpaishahya is here omitted by
36302	conjecturally. a mistake of the ai-tist employed to
36303	- The accented A (a) is expressed in engi-ave the inscription. Cf. Detached
36304	the original; the unaccented A (a), Inscriptions. No. 1, and Norris's Be-
36305	unless at the beginning of words, is hist. Inscr. p. 95.
36306	the supplied vowel of the Sanskrit,
p. 589
36307	Col. 1. THE BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION. 591
36308	Par. 3. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathfya ; (2) ^ra^yaradiya
36309	vayam Hakhamanishiya tliahyamaliya ; (3) Hacha ])ruviyata
36310	amdta, amahya ; (4) Hacha piaiviyata hya amakham taxxma
36311	Minhai/athiyci aha.
36312	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) On that account we have
36313	been called Acheemenians ; (3) from antiquity we have de-
36314	scended (?) ; (4) from antiquity our family have been kings.
36315	Par. 4. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathij^a — (2) viii.'' mana
36316	taumayrt ti/ir/a ^^iiiwama khshayathiya aha ; (3) adam navam ; (4)
36317	IX. duvitataranam vayam Ms/ia3'athiya amahya.
36318	(1) Says Darius the king— (2) (There are) eight of my race
36319	who have been kings before (me) ; (3) I (am) the ninth ; nine
36320	of us have been kings in a double line (?).
36321	Par. 5. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Vasknci Aura-
36322	mazdaha adam khshayathiya amiya ; (3) Auramazda khshatram
36323	Tdd^ndfrdbara.
36324	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) By the grace of Ormazd I am
36325	king ; (3) Ormazd has granted me the empire.
36326	Par. 6. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Ima dahyava
36327	tya maHa paf^yaisha; (3) vashna Auramazdaha adamsham khsha-
36328	yathi3'a aham ; (4) Parsa, '\]vaja, Babiixish, Athura, Arabaya,
36329	Mudraya ; tyij^a darayahya ; Saparda, Ynnd, Mdda,^ ArmhiB., Kata-
36330	patuka, Parthva, Zaraka, Hariva, 'Uvarazmij a, Bakhtar/sA, Sug-
36331	uda, Gadara, Saka, Thatagush, Hara'uvatish, Maka ; (5) frahar-
36332	vam dahyava xxiii.
36333	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) These are the countiies
36334	which have come to me ; (3) by the grace of Ormazd I have
36335	become king of them ; (4) Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria,
36336	Arabia, Egypt, those which are of the sea (/. e. the islands),
36337	Saparda, Ionia, Media, Armenia, Cappadocia, Partliia, Zarangia,
36338	Aria, Chorasraia, Bactria, Sogdiaua, Gandaria, the Sacee, Satta-
36339	gydia, Arachotia, and Mecia ; (5) in all 23 provinces.
36340	* Numbers in tlie Pers'.an inscriptions is marked by an arrow-head, thus, <.
36341	are marked thus: — 1. From one to ten, ^ This is conjectural. There is room
36342	a single perpendicular wedge for each for Mada (Media) between Ionia and
36343	unit: these wedges are placed in two 1 Armenia; but the passage is illegible
36344	rows, one above the other, the final unit ; both in the Persian and the Babylonian
36345	(where the number is odd) being made ; trauscrij^it. Media (Jfat't-jKi) appears in
36346	double the length of the others. 2. Ten the Scythiu version (Norri^-, p. 97).
p. 590
36347	592 THE BEHISTUN INSCRIPTJOX. App. Book 111.
36348	Par. 7. (1) Thdtija Darayavusli khshayathiya — (2) Ima dabyava
36349	tj'a mana Y)Sitiyaisha ; (3) vaslina Auramazdaha mana badaka
36350	ahata ; (4) maua bajim abarata. (5) J^asbam bacbania atbabya
36351	kbsbapava raiicbapativa, ava akanavayata.
36352	(1) Says Darius tbe king — (2) Tbese (are) tbe provinces
36353	whicb bave come to me ; (3) by tbe grace of Oi mazd tbey bave
36354	become subject to me ; (4) tbey bave brougbt tribute to me.
36355	(5) Tbat wbicb bas been said to tbem by me, botb by nigbt and
36356	by day, it bas been done (by tbem).
36357	Par. 8. (1) Thdfiya Darayavusb kbsbayatbiya — (2) Atara ima da-
36358	byava, martiya bya agata® aha, avam 'ubartam abaram (3) Hya
36359	arika^ aba, avam 'ufrastam aparasam. (4) Vashnd Auramazdaba
36360	ima dabyava tyana mana data aprij^aya. (5) Yathasba'j/i A«cba-
36361	ma atbabya, awatba akunavayata.
36362	(1) Says Darius tbe king — (2) Witbin tbese countries tbe
36363	man wbo was good, bim I have rigbt well cberisbed. (3) AYbo-
36364	ever was evil, bim bave I utterly rooted out. (4) By tbe gi-ace
36365	of Ormazd, tbese are tbe countries by whom ray laws bave been
36366	observed. (5) As it bas been said to tbem by me, so (by tbem)
36367	it bas been done.
36368	Par. 9. (1) Tbdtiya Darayaviisb kbsbayatb?j/a — (2) ^uramazda mana
36369	kbsbatram frabara. (3) Auramazdamaiya upastam abara, yata
36370	ima kbsbatram ac/araya. (4) Vasbna Auramazdaba ima kbsba-
36371	tram darayamiya.
36372	(1) Says Darius tbe king — (2) Ormazd granted me tbe
36373	empii-e. (3) Ormazd bruugbt belp to me, so tbat I gained tbis
36374	empire. (4) By tbe grace of Ormazd I bold tbis empire.
36375	Par. 10. (1) Hh^^Hya Darayavusb kbsbayatbiya — (2) Ima tya mana
36376	kartam pasava yatba kbsb%a^/»'ya abavam. (3) Kabujiya nama,
36377	Kurausb putra, amakbam taumay«, hnuva pruvama ida kbsba-
36378	yatbiya aba. (4) Avabya Kabujiyabya brata Bardiya nama aha ;
36379	(5) hamata bampita Kabujiyabya. (6) I'asava Kabujiyei avam
36380	Bardiyam avaja. (7) Yatba Kabujiya Bardiyam awaja, karabya
36381	niya azada abava tya Bardij'a avajata. (8) Pasava Kabujij'a
36382	Mudrayam ashiya\a,. (9) Yatba Kabujiya Mudrayam ashiyava,
36383	^ There is a good deal of doubt as to howevei-, gives as equivalents pitkut and
36384	the meaning of the two opposed words, hisit, and as the latter word answers to
36385	agata and arika. Col. Rawlinson was the Hebrew C1N3, the most correct
36386	originally inclined to translate them by translation would seem to be simply
36387	"faithful" and "heretical." (SeeYoca- good And. bud.
36388	bulaiy.) The Babylonian transcript,
p. 591
36389	Col. 1. THE BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION. 593
36390	pasava kara arika abava. (10) Pasava darauga dahyaiiva vasiya
36391	abava, iita Parsaiya, uta Madaiya, uta ainyanva dahyaiisliTiva.
36392	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) This (is) what (was) done
36393	by me after that 1 became king. (3) (A man) named Cambyses,
36394	son of Cyrus, of our race, he was here king before me. (4) Of
36395	that Cambyses (there was) a bfother, Bardes was his name ;
36396	(5) of the same mother, (and) of the same father with Cambyses,
36397	(<5) Afterwards Cambyses slew that Bardes. (7) \\hen Cambyses
36398	had slain Bardes, it was not known to the people that Bardes
36399	had been slain. (8) Afterwards Cambyses proceeded to Egypt.
36400	(9) ^Vhen Cambj'ses had proceeded to Egypt, then the state be-
36401	came wicked. (10) Then the lie became abounding in the land,
36402	both in Persia, and in Media, and in the other provinces.
36403	Par, 11. (1) ThatiyaDarayavush khshayathiya — (2) Pa^r/m martiya
36404	Magush aha, Gaumata nama. (3) Hauva udapata'a hacha Pishi-
36405	?/«"uvadaya, Ai'akadrish nama kaufa, hacha avadasha. (4) Tiya-
36406	khnahya mah^a xiv. rauchabish, thakata aha, yadiya udapatata,
36407	hauva karahya avatha odurujiya : (5) Adam Eardiya amiya, hya
36408	Kuraush putra, Kabujiyahya brata. (6) Paf-ava kara haruva
36409	hamatriya abava. (7) Hachti Kabujiya abiya avam «shiyava,
36410	uta Parsa uta Mada, uta aniya dahyava. (8) Khshatram hauva
36411	agarbayata. (9) Garmapadahya mahya ix. rauchabish, thakala
36412	aha, avatha khshatram agarb%afa. (10) Pasava Kabujiya 'uva-
36413	marshiyush amari}'ata.
36414	(1) Saj^s Darius the king — (2) Afterwards there was a
36415	(certain) man, a Magiau, named Gomates. (3) He arose from
36416	Pissiachada, the mountain named Aiacadres, from thence. (4)
36417	On the 14th day of the month Yayakhna, then it was that he
36418	arose. He thus lied to the state : — (5) " I am Bardes, the son
36419	of CyiTis, the brother of Cambyses." (6) Then the whole state
36420	became rebellious. (7) From Cambyses it went over to him,
36421	both Persia, and Media, and the other provinces. (8) He seized
36422	the empire, (9) On the 9th da}" of the month Garmapada, then
36423	it was he so seized the empire. (10) Afterwards Cambyses,
36424	imable to endure, (?) died.
36425	Par. 12. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Aita khsha-
36426	tram, tya Gaumata hya Magush adina Kabujiyam, aita khshati am
36427	hacha pruviyata amakham taumaya aha. (3) Pasava Gaiimata
36428	hya Magush adina Kabujiyam uta Parsam, uta Madam, uta aniya
36429	dahyava ; hauva ayasta 'uvaipashiyara akuta ; (4) hauva khsha-
36430	yathiya abava.
36431	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) The empire of which Go-
36432	mates, the Magian, dispossessed Cambyses. that empire from the
p. 592
36433	59i THE BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION. A pp. Took 111.
36434	olden time had been in oiir family, (o) After Gomates tlie
36435	Magian had dispossessed Cambyses both of Persia and ]\Iedia
36436	and the dependent provinces, he did according to his desiie :
36437	(4) he became king.
36438	Par. 13. (1) Thatij'a Darayavnsh khshayathiya— (2) Niya aha mar-
36439	tiya, niya Parsa, niya Mada, niya amakham tanmaya kashchiya,
36440	hya avam Gaumatam tyam Magum khshatram ditam chakhriya.
36441	(3) Karashim hacha darshama atarsa. (4) Karam vasiya avaja-
36442	niya; hya paranam Bardiyam adana, avahyaradiya karam ava-
36443	janiya, (5) " Matyamam khshanasatiya tya adam niya Bardiya
36444	amiya, hya Kuransh putra." (6) Kashchiya niya adarshanansh
36445	chischiya thastaniya pariya Ganmatam tyam Magnm, yata
36446	adam arasam. (7) Pasava adam Auramazdam patiyavahya ;
36447	(8) Anramazdamaij^a upaslara abara. (9) Bagayadaish mahya x.
36448	ranchabish, thakata aha, avatha adam hada kamanaibish marti-
36449	yaibish avam Gamnatam tyam Magum avajanam, uta tyishiya
36450	fratama martiya annshiya ahata. (10) Siktba'xivatish ntima dida,
36451	Nisaya nama dahyaush Madai3"a, avadashim avajanam: (11)
36452	khshatramshim adam adinam. (12) Vashna Anramazdaha adam
36453	khshayathiya abavam ; (13) Anramazda khshatram mana fi abara.
36454	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) There was not a man,
36455	neither Persian, nor Median, nor any one of our family, avIio
36456	Avould dispossess that Gomates the ]\Iagian of the crown. (3)
36457	The state feared him exceedingly. (4) He slew many people,
36458	who had known the old Bardes ; for that reason he slew them,
36459	(5) " lest they should recognise me that I am not Bardes,
36460	the son of Cyrus." (6) No one dared to say anything con-
36461	cerning Gomates the Magian, until I arrived. (7) Then I prayed
36462	to Ormazd ; (8) Ormazd brought help to me. (9) On the 10th
36463	day of the month Bagayadish, then it was, with my faithful
36464	men, I slew that Gomates the Magian, and those who Avere his
36465	chief followers. (10) The fort named Sictachotes in the district
36466	of Media called Xistea, there I slew him. (11)1 dispossessed
36467	him of the empire. (12) By the grace of Ormazd I became
36468	king : (13) Ormazd granted me the sceptre.
36469	Par. 14, (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Khshatram
36470	tya hacha amakham taumaya parabartam aha, ava adam pati-
36471	padam akunavam. (3) Adamshim gathva avastayam, (4) Yatha
36472	pruvamachiya, avatha adam akunavam. (5) Ayadana tya Gau-
36473	mata hya Magush viyaka, adam niyatraraj-am (6) Karahya
36474	abacharish gaithamcha maniyamcha, vithabi.sh:7/a tyadish Gau-
36475	mata hya Magush adina. (7) Adam karam gathva avastayam,
36476	Parsam.Aa, Madamc/id, uta aniya dahyava. (8) Yatha pruva-
p. 593
36477	Col. 1. THE BEHISTUN INSCKIPTION. 595
36478	machij'^a avatlia adam tya parabartam patiyabaram. (0) Yahlina
36479	Anramazdalia ima adam aknnavam. (10) Adam liamatakli^liiya
36480	yata vitham tyam amakham gatliva avastayam, (ll)Yath.a pr«-
36481	vamachiya avatlia adam hamatakhsliiya, vashna Ainamazdalia,
36482	yatlia Gaiimata hya Maguah. vitham tyam amakham niya parabai a.
36483	(1) Says Darius the king— (2) The empire which had
36484	been taken away from our family, that I recovered. (3) I esta-
36485	blished it in its place, (-i) As (it was) before, so I made (it).
36486	(5) The temples which Goraates the Magian had destroyed, I re-
36487	built. (6) The sacred offices of the state, both the religious
36488	chaunts and the worship, (I restored) to the people, which
36489	Gomates the Magian had deprived them of. (7) I established
36490	the state in its place, both Persia, and Media, and the other
36491	provinces. (8) As (it was) before, so I restored what (had been)
36492	taken away. (9) By the grace of Oimazd I did (this). (10) I
36493	arranged so that I established our family in its place. (11) As
36494	(it was) before, so I arranged (it), by the gi-ace of Ormazd, so
36495	that Gomates the Magian should not supersede our family.
36496	Par. 15. (1) Thatiya Darayavnsh khshayathija.— (2) Imat^a adam
36497	akunavam, pasava yatha khshayathiya abavam.
36498	(1) Says Darius the king— (2) This (is) what 1 did, after
36499	that I became king.
36500	Far. 16. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Yatha adam
36501	Gaumatam tyam Magum avdjanam, pasava I. martiya, Atiina
36502	nama, Upadarmahya putra, hauva udapata^«. (3) 'Uvajaiya, kara-
36503	hya avatha athaha — (4) ' Adam 'JJvajaija, khshayathij^a amiya.'
36504	(5) Paso'ra ' Uvajija, hamitriya abava ; (6) abiya avam Atrinam
36505	ashiyava ; (7) hauva khshayathiya abava 'Uvajaiya. (8) Uta I.
36506	martiya Eabiruviya, Naditabira nama, Aina/vvh^a putra, hauva
36507	udapatata. (9) Babirauva karam avatha adurujiya — (10) 'Adam
36508	Nabukudrachara amiya, hya Nabunitahya putra. (11) Pasava
36509	kara hya Babiruviya haruva abiya avam Naditablram ashiyava.
36510	(12) Babirush hamatriya abava. (13) Khshatram tya Babirauva
36511	hauva agarbayata.
36512	(1) Says Darius the king— (2) When I had slain Gomates
36513	the Magian, then a man named Atrines, the son of Opadarmes,
36514	he arose ; (3) to the state of Susiana thus he said ; (4) ' I am
36515	king of Susiana.' (5) Then the Susianians became rebellious ;
36516	(6) they went over to that Atrines; (7) he became king of
36517	Susiana. (8) And a man, a Babylonian, Kidintabelus by name,
36518	the son of Anires, he arose. (9) To the state of Babylonia he
36519	thus falsely declared— (10) ' I am Xaltochodrossor, the son of
p. 594
36520	590 THE BEHISTUN INSCEIPTION. App. Book 111.
36521	Nabonidus.' (11) Afterwards the whole state of Babylon went
36522	over to that Nidiiitabeliis. (12) Babylon became rebellions.
36523	(13) He seized the kingdom of Babylonia.
36524	Par. 17. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Pasava adani
36525	fraishayam 'Uvajani ; (3) hauva Atrina hasta anayata ahiya mmw.
36526	(4) Adamshim avajanam.
36527	(1) Says Darius the king— (2) Then I sent to Susiana ;
36528	(3) That Atrines was brought to me a prisoner. (4) I slew him.
36529	Par. 18. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya - (2) Pasava adam
36530	BahimvLi ashiyavani abiya avam Naditabiram, hya Nabukudia-
36531	chara agauiafri. (3) Kara hya Naditabirahya Tigrani adaraya ;
36532	(4) avada aishatata, nta abisb naviya aha. (5) Pasava adam
36533	karam ma . . kauva avakanam. (6) Aniyam dashabarim akun-
36534	avam. (7) Aniyahya asm . . anayam. (8) Auramazdamaiya
36535	iipas^«/». abara. (9) ^'^ashna Auramazdaha Tigram viyataiayam.
36536	(10) Avada karam tyam Naditabirahya adam ajanani vasiya.
36537	(11) Atriyatij'a'ij/a mdhya xxvi. rauehabish, thakata aha avatha
36538	hamaranam akuma.
36539	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) Then I went to Babylon
36540	against tbat Nidintabelus, who was called Nabochodrossor. (3)
36541	The people of Nidintabelus held the Tigris ; (4) there they were
36542	posted, and they had boats. (5) There I approached a detach-
36543	ment (lit. troops, people) in rafts. (6) I brought the enemy into
36544	difficulty. (7) (I) carried the enemy's position. (8) Ormazd
36545	brought help to me. (9) By the grace of Ormazd I crossed the
36546	Tigris. (10) There T slew many of the troops of that Nidintabelus.
36547	(11) On the 26th day of the month Atriyata, then it was we so
36548	fouo-ht.''
36549	£5*-
36550	Par. 19. (1) Thatiya DarayauMsh khshayathiya — (2) Pasava ar/crm
36551	Babirum ashiyavawi. (3) A^/iiya Babirum yathd . . . ayam, Zazana
36552	nama, vardanam anuva Ufratauva, avada /ja^ua Naditdbira,, hya
36553	Kabukudrachara agaubata, aisha hada kara patish mdm, hama-
36554	ratiaxn. chartanij^a. (4) Pajiawa hamaranam akmna. (5) Auramaz-
36555	damaiya upastam abara. (6) Vashia ^litramazdaha karam tjam
36556	Naditabirahya adam ajanam vasiya. (7) Aniya apiya . h . a ;
36557	(8) apishim parabara ; (9) Anamakahya mahya ii. rauehabish,
36558	thakata aha avatha hamaranam akuma.
36559	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) Then I went to Babylon.
36560	(3) When I arrived near Babylon, at the city named Zazana, on
36561	the Euphrates, there that Nidintabelus, who was called Nabocho-
36562	drossor, came with his forces against me, to do Ixittle. (4)
36563	^ The Scy tide transcript adds, "There I slew him" (Norris's Beh. Inscr. p. 105).
p. 595
36564	Coi.. 2. THE BEHISTUN INSCEIPTION. 597
36565	Then we fought a battle. (5) Ormazd brought help to me.
36566	(6) By the grace of Ormazd I slew many of the troops of that
36567	Nidintabelus — (7) the enemy was driven (?) into the water —
36568	(8) the water destroyed them. (9) On the 2nd day of the month
36569	Anamaka, then it was we so fought.
36570	Column II.
36571	Par. 1. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshaya^/i^^a— (2) Fasdva Nacli-
36572	tabii'a liada kamanaibish asbaraibish dJnya Bdbivum. ashiyava.
36573	(3) Pasava adam Babirum ashiyai-owi. (-i) ^ aha uta Ba-
36574	birum agarbayam, uta avam Naditabiram agarhdyam. (5) Pasava
36575	avam Naditabiram adam Babirauva awajanam.
36576	(1) Says Darius the king — • (2) Then Nidintabelus with the
36577	horsemen (that were) faithful (to him) fled to Babylon. (3) Then
36578	I went to Babylon. (4) By the grace of Ormazd I both took
36579	Babylon, and seized that Nidintabelus. fS) Then I slew that
36580	Nidintabelus at Babylon.
36581	Par. 2. (1) Thdtija. Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Yata adam Ba-
36582	birauwa aham, imd dahydwa ty&, hachama hamitriya abava : Par.sa,
36583	'Uvaja, Mada, Athura, Artnina, Paj^tliYa, Margush, Thatagush,
36584	Saka.
36585	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) "Whilst I was at Babylon,
36586	these (are) the countries which revolted against me : Pei'sia,
36587	Susiana, Media, Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia,
36588	Sacia.
36589	Par. 3. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khuhebjathiya — (2) I. martiy& Mar-
36590	tja. nama, Chichikhraish putra, Kuganaka nama vetrdanam
36591	Pnrsiya, avada adaraya. (3) Hauva udapatata : (4) 'Uvajai^'^a
36592	karahya avatha athaha : (5) ' Adam Imanish amiya, 'Uvajaiya
36593	khshayathiya.'
36594	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) A man, named Martes, the
36595	son of Sisicres, (in) the city of Pei'sia named Cyganaca, there he
36596	dwelt. (3) Pie arose : (4) to the state of Susiana thus ho said :
36597	(5) ' I am Imanes, king of Susiana.'
36598	Par. 4. (1) Thatij-a Darayavush khshayafA?>/a — (2) Adakiya adam
36599	ashaniya aham abiya 'PTvajam. (3) Pasava hachama
36600	'f/iiajiya avam Martij^am agarbaya : (4) hyasliam mathishta
36601	aha na.
36602	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) I was moving a little way (?)
36603	in the direction of Susiana. (3) Then the Susianians, fearing (?)
36604	** Tlie blank here may be supplied
36605	with the wordti " Vashiui Auiaiiuizdiiha"
36606	from the Scythic version (Norris, p.
36607	106).
p. 596
36608	598 THE BEHISTUN INSCRIPTIOX. App. Book III.
36609	from me, seized that Martius. (4) He who was their chief slew
36610	him.9
36611	Par. 5. (1) Thatiya Darayavtish khshajathiya — (2) I. martiya Fra-
36612	vartish vdma, Mdda, hauva udapatata. (3) Madaij^a karahya
36613	avatha athaha: (4) ' Adam Kkshathrita'^^ ormiya, 'Uvakhshatarahya
36614	taumaj'a.' (5) Pasava kara Mada hya vithdpatiya dim, Artchama
36615	hamitriya abava. (6) Abiya avam Fravartim ashiyava : (7)
36616	hauva hhshdyathiya abava Madaiya.
36617	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) A man, named Phraortes,
36618	a Mede, he rose up. (3) To the state of Media thiis he said :
36619	(4) I am Xathrites, of the race of Cj'axares. (5) Then the Me-
36620	dian troops who wei"e at home revolted from me. (6) They went
36621	over to that Phraortes : (7) he became king of Media.
36622	Par. 6. (1) Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya — (2) Kara Pdrsa utd
36623	Mdda hya upa mam aha, hauva kamanama aha. (3) Pasava
36624	adam kara??i fraishayam. (4) Vidarna nama Parsa, mana badaka,
36625	avamsham mathishtam akunavam. (5) Avathdshdm athaham —
36626	(6) ' Prita avam karam tyam Madam jata, hya mana niya gauba-
36627	tiya.' (7) Pasava hauva Vidarna hada kara ashiyava. (8) Yatha
36628	Madam pararasa, Ma ... " ?m'ma, vardanam Madaiya, avada
36629	hamaranam akunaush hadd 'M.Mailish. (9) Hya Madaishiiva
36630	mathishta aha, hauva adakiyaniya da (10) Aura-
36631	mazdamaij'a upastam abara : (11) vashna Auramazdaha kara
36632	hya Vidarnahyd avam karam tyam hamitri^^am aja vasiya.
36633	(12) Anamakahya vio^hyd vi. (?) rauchabish, Ihakata aha avatha-
36634	sliam hamaranam kartam. (13) Pasava hauva hdra hj^a mana
36635	Kapada nama, dahyaush Madaiya, avada mam amdnaya, ydtd
36636	adam arasam Madam,
36637	(1) Says Darius the king — (2) The army of Persians and
36638	Medes that was with me, that was faithful to me. (3) Then I
36639	sent forth troops. (4) Hydarnes b}^ name, a Persian, one of mj^
36640	subjects,' him I appointed their leader. (5) Thus I addressed
36641	them : (0) ' Go foith (and) smite that Median state, which does
36642	not acknowledge me.' ^ (7) Then that Hydarnes marched with
36643	his army. (8) When he reached Media, a city of Media, named
36644	Marus(?), there he fought a battle with the Medes. (9) He
36645	who was the leader of the Medes could not at all resist him (?)
36646	(10) Ormazd brought help to me ; (11) by the grace of Ormazd,
36647	" The sense of this passage, which is town appears as Mariict, in the Scythic
36648	illegible in the Persian, is fixed by the it is Marus.
36649	Babylonian transcript. ' Literally, " one bound to me."
36650	1" Restored from the detached in- ; - Literally, " which is not called
36651	scription. mine."
36652	" In the Babylouiau the uuiiil; of this

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